The COMPLETE GUIDE to

HOME

INSPECTION

roger c. robinson & michael litchfield

THE COMPLETE GUIDE to

HOME

INSPECTION

roger c. robinson & michael litchfield

t

Text © 2015 by Roger C. Robinson and Michael Litchfield

Photographs © 2015 by Roger C. Robinson and Michael Litchfield, except where noted Illustrations © 2015 by The Taunton Press, Inc.

All rights reserved.

Pp

The Taunton Press, Inc.

63 South Main Street

PO Box 5506

Newtown, CT 06470-5506

e-mail: tp@taunton.com

Editor: CHRISTINA GLENNON

Technical Editors: SCOTT GIBSON, GLENN MATHEWSON, DOUGLAS HANSEN

Copy editor: CANDACE B. LEVY

Indexer: JAY KREIDER

Cover & interior design: CAROL SINGER | NOTICE DESIGN

Layout: CAROL SINGER | NOTICE DESIGN

Illustrator: VINCENT BABAK

Photographer: ROGER ROBINSON except where noted

The following names/manufacturers appearing in The Complete Guide to Home Inspection are trademarks Basement Systems®, Benjamin Moore®, B-I-N®, Cedar Breather®, COPALUM®, Corian®, Dumpster®, DuPont®, eBay®, Fujitsu®, GLULAM®, Google™, HardieShingle®, International Residential Code®, LeadCheck®, Medex®, Medite®II, National Electrical Code®, Natura®, NFPA 70E®, Phillips®, Q-LON®, R-Wrap®, Safecoat®, Sheetrock®, SierraPine™, Simpson®, Strong-Tie®, Stylistio®, Surveymaster®, The Nest®, Transite™, Tyvek®, Vycor®, Watco®, Watts®, Wi-Fi®, Windows®

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Litchfield, Michael W.

The complete guide to home inspection / Michael Litchfield and Roger C. Robinson.

pages cm

Includes index.

ISBN 978-1-62710-480-7

ISBN 978-1-63186-374-5 (e-Book)

ISBN 978-1-63186-375-2 (ePub)

1. Dwellings--Inspection--Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Robinson, Roger (Roger C.) II. Title.

TH4817.5.L58 2015

643'.12--dc23

2014047561

Printed in the United States of America

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

ABOUT YOUR SAFETY: Homebuilding is inherently dangerous. From accidents with power tools to falls from ladders, scaffolds, and roofs, builders risk serious injury and even death. We try to promote safe work habits. But what is safe for one person under certain circumstances may not be safe for you under different circumstances. So don’t try anything you learn about here (or elsewhere) unless you’re certain that it is safe for you. Please be careful.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Shortly before this book went into production in fall 2014 its principal author, Roger Robinson, passed away, so it falls to me as his co-author to say a few words about him.

By any measure, Roger was an amazing man. For starters, he inspected both residential and commercial properties in the San Francisco Bay Area for more than 35 years, and once estimated that he had personally inspected six or seven thousand homes. As Roger was 6 ft. 5 in., just entering all those crawl spaces and cramped attics boggles the mind. And he was famous for the care he took with every inspection.

His reach extended far. He trained many prominent Bay Area home inspectors and held classes and seminars nationwide and in Canada. The consummate pro, he helped found several professional chapters for CREIA (California Real Estate Inspection Association) and ASHI (American Society of Home Inspectors) and over the years he was president of CREIA and served on national and state committees to raise inspection standards.

Roger's many awards include the Monahan Award (the highest national award) and the John Daly Award (the highest state award).

Roger was a lucid writer and one of the most persistent photographers I've ever met. He hauled his lanky frame and his cameras pretty much everywhere and managed to get shots in some of the darkest, dankest places on earth. He wrote many training manuals and articles for home inspectors, and he and I first collaborated on House Check: Finding and Fixing Common House Problems (Taunton Press, 2003).

His friends will remember him best as a warm, generous, kind soul who would go to any length to ease your load or share his knowledge. We may be the poorer for his passing, but we are immensely richer for his having lived—and lived so well.

Roger's generosity and passion for detail are echoed by the many talented people who helped create this book, several of whom Roger trained.

Thanks to Brian Cogley, who is depicted in the book's introduction; to Douglas Hansen, who knew Roger for 35 years and is a co-author of the widely praised Code Check series; to the Bay Area members of ASHI, who were helpful in many ways; to Scott Gibson and Glenn Mathewson for closely reading and improving the manuscript; and to Christina Glennon, Peter Chapman, and all the Taunton Press crew for working so hard to achieve excellence.

Roger would be proud of all of you.

Mike Litchfield

Point Reyes, California

CONTENTS

I N T RODUC T ION 2

CHAPTER 1

The Walk-Around 17

CHAPTER 2

Exteriors 29

CHAPTER 3

Roofs 52

CHAPTER 4

Attics 76

CHAPTER 5

Foundations, Basements, and

Crawl Spaces 89

CHAPTER 6

Electrical Systems 116

CHAPTER 7

Plumbing 149

iv

E N V I RO N M E N T A L C O N C E R N S

CHAPTER 8

Heating and Cooling Systems 177

CHAPTER 9

Chimneys and Fireplaces 207

CHAPTER 10

Interiors 220

CHAPTER 11

Doors and Windows 237

CHAPTER 12

Kitchens, Bathrooms, and Laundry 254

CHAPTER 13

Attached Structures 276

CHAPTER 14

Environmental Concerns 296

PHO T O CR E DI T S 31 2

I N DE X 313

INTRODUCTION

PEOPLE INTERESTED IN BUYING A HOUSE have always

wanted to take a good look at it first, the same way that someone buying a horse would look at its teeth. It's just not wise to buy blind. Likewise, someone selling a house

would naturally wonder what it was really worth. So in

the old days, a seller might ask a trusted friend who knew houses—a master builder—to have a look and fix, or at

least report on, what needed fixing. That done, one side or the other would suggest a price and there would be a bit

of back and forth—horse trading—till finally they agreed

on the terms and shook on the deal.

2

Times have changed, but that’s still basically how

home inspector Brian Cogley does a preinspection

it’s done. There’s much more pressure now, of course.

for a homeowner who is thinking of selling. What

Houses have gotten quite pricey, and especially when

follows is not an inspection report but, rather, Brian’s

the housing market is hot, transactions have become

firsthand reactions to what he is seeing in his own

complex and fast paced. Now there are real estate

words. Later, when he goes home, he’ll compile his

agents and mortgage brokers and title companies.

findings in a detailed inspection report that typically

But in the middle are still two parties trying to come

runs 30 or 40 pages.

to an agreement. And somewhere at the heart of it all,

poking around the attic or peering into a crawl space,

STEP 1: DO A WALK-AROUND

is a home inspector trying to create an objective

“When I approach a house, I often have a gut feeling.

report about the house.

Say, whether someone has lived there for 30 years or

The Complete Guide to Home Inspection walks you

whether someone has just purchased the house and

through the inspection process in a logical, orderly

is trying to flip it. Sometimes if I go inside and see

way, from first impressions to final conclusions.

additional signs, I change my mind. Generally I’m

To make this complex body of information about

right. But whatever my first impression is, facts are

houses more accessible to readers, The Complete Guide facts. And that’s what I’m here to gather.

to Home Inspection chapters present each house system

“You might assume this house’s fresh paint means

in sequence, more or less in the order that a home

it’s being flipped. Not so. Here, it’s more of a sign that inspector might examine it.

the housing market is hot and the long-time owner

If you hope to buy a house, this book’s informa-

is working hard to get it on the market. I’ve been told

tion should give you a more realistic idea of what that

the family has lived here for over 20 years. Fresh paint

house’s ultimate cost will be, including repairs. If

isn’t always a red flag. What gets my attention is the

you are a seller, this information will help you figure

debris that is scattered over the yard—old lumber,

what the house’s true value is, what a realistic sales

old insulation, paint cans, paint scrapings. Again,

price would be, and what deficiencies should be fixed

it’s just a clue, not a conclusion, but debris like this

before putting a house on the market. Whether you

suggests that the work is not being done by profes-

are a buyer or a seller, The Complete Guide to Home Inspection will help demystify inspections and shed light on reports. If you are a building professional who is

thinking about becoming a home inspector—many

inspectors were builders first—this book will provide

rich insights into the practice.

Last, The Complete Guide to Home Inspection’s principal author, Roger C. Robinson, has personally inspected

thousands of houses, so his decades of experience

will give you a feel for the close scrutiny and creative

thinking that go into every comprehensive home

inspection report.

A Home Inspection in Real Time

Before we explore the many systems of a house,

Start your inspection with a walk-around. Get the big

let’s follow the steps of an actual inspection. In the

picture. What’s the lay of the land, the house’s overall

sequence to follow, veteran San Francisco Bay area

condition, the level of craftsmanship?

I N T RO D U C T I O N 3

sionals. Pros would rent a Dumpster® first thing and

longer if you keep them painted or flashed. Houses

probably clean up at the end of each day to keep the

built in the good old days were pretty good, but they

client happy.

weren’t perfect.”

“Note, too, the paint chips on the ground. Old

house, so it’s probably lead-based paint. Since 2010,

STEP 3: ROOF

contractors working on houses with lead-based paint

“I usually don’t take notes on a roof. I would rather

have to follow certain work practices to limit dispers-

be paying attention to where I’m going and have my

ing contaminated materials.

hands available in case something happens. You’ll

“During the walk-around, I get a preview of the sys-

notice I’m wearing gloves because it’s summertime

tems I’ll investigate later.

and things can get hot, which you don’t think about

“The foundation looks typical for a house this age

till you touch the roof from the ladder.

on a relatively level lot. There’s been some movement.

“The composition shingles on this roof show mod-

That gap between the siding and the foundation—

erate wear. There are some mossy areas, a handful of

where the foundation has rotated—will be super

exposed nail heads that need to be sealed or covered,

visible when we go into the basement and the sun

and several rows of shingles spaced too far apart and

backlights it (see p. 6).

overexposed to the weather. But the big news about

“There’s a three-wire service entry, so the electri-

this roof is its slope: It’s too low for composition

cal service is delivering 120 volts/240 volts. Opening

shingles. Built-up or modified bitumen roofing (see

the door to the service panel, I see it is an outdated

p. 62) would have been a better choice, especially on brand that’s difficult to get replacement parts for, so

the roof section in front.

it probably needs to be replaced.

“That said, composition shingles on a low-slope

“And I see a lot of nonstandard plumbing connec-

roof better have all its details right. Which is not the

tions on the exterior. Again, that’s common for older

case here. The shingles along its valleys are lifting

houses in the area, but it has me curious about what

and water can get under them. When you’ve got

I’ll find inside.”

STEP 2: EXTERIOR

“Another thing you see with houses of this vintage in

this area is horizontal redwood siding nailed directly

to studs, meaning the siding is the sheathing. And,

of course, no building paper behind it, which has its

pros and cons. Air blows through it like a sieve, but it

also dries any excess moisture so you rarely get rot in

living-space walls.

“The basement and the foundation perimeter tell

another story, especially if siding is too close to the

soil. I’ll know more when I go under the house, but

you can see new paint along the bottom that’s already

starting to peel. The siding’s probably wicking

moisture.

“Up above, the eaves look worn. Some of the trim

In older houses, siding is frequently nailed directly to

is splitting, and those beams that stick out beyond

studs. Here, the siding is also too close to grade, which the roof line always get a lot of weather. They’ll last

may mean rotted framing behind it.

4

I N T RO D U C T I O N

If it’s safe to get up on the roof, be sure to examine

Be sure to wear eye protection as you open an attic

details that aren’t visible from the ground, such as the

access hatch. If it hasn’t been opened in a while, dust

louvered vent under this overhang.

and debris may rain down on you.

center-cut valleys (see p. 66), you’ve got to offset is a fire hazard. Unscreened attic vents, which will let

overlapping shingles by a couple of inches so the cut

all sorts of critters and insects in. Water stains, but

line doesn’t run down the middle of the valley. That

it’s not clear if they are active. This attic needs more

wasn’t done. Metal flashing runs on the outside of the

ventilation, lots more ventilation.”

roof edges rather than being overlapped by shingles

above. So water will dam up. The gutters are shot and

STEP 5: FOUNDATION, BASEMENT,

need to be replaced, and the downspouts empty too

AND SUBSTRUCTURE

close to the foundation. Well, you get the idea.

“Under the house is where the ‘money stuff’ is:

“Faulty details like this probably account for the

drainage, foundation, HVAC, plumbing systems—

goop (mastic cement) that’s smeared all over. Too

big-ticket items. Over here is that gap above the

much goop is always a sign that things aren’t right,

foundation we saw outside (see the photo on p. 6 and that there’s a leak, or that shingles aren’t staying

on the facing page). That’s the back of the siding,

down. That’s the big picture. The roof sags, but that’s

without a scrap of building paper in sight.

normal in an older house with undersize rafters.

“A lot of times, when people see basements in older

When I’m in the attic I’ll look for cracking rafters and

homes with tall ceilings, they think, ‘Free living

leaks. Chances are, though, that the roof framing is

space, let’s Sheetrock® it.’ But you can’t always do it.

still serviceable after a century, sags and all.”

It’s relatively dry in here now but there’s no building

paper (that is, no moisture barrier). If water gets

STEP 4: ATTIC

behind the siding, there’s plenty of air to dry it out.

So what are you seeing up there?

But if you ’rock the framing as it is, moisture will get

“The usual. Old, outdated framing. No ridge board,

trapped in the walls and soon you’ll have a mold

but no broken rafters, either. Before they reroof, a

factory.

contractor should check out the framing. Knob-and-

“Foundations this old rarely have steel in them.

tube wiring. Exposed electrical connections, which

Adobe soil expands in the wet months and shallow

should be in a box. Blown-in fiberglass insulation.

foundations like this rise and fall with it. So you’re

Some fiberglass batts. Bunch of newspapers, which

going to have cracks. If you look back into the corner

I N T RO D U C T I O N 5

Backlit by the sun, a gap between the siding and the

The old service panel is a Zinsco, an outdated brand

mudsill is easy to see. Foundations of this vintage usu-

that’s difficult to get replacement parts for. It should

ally are not reinforced with steel.

be replaced by a licensed electrician.

of the crawl space, which still has its original founda-

STEP 6: ELECTRICAL

tion, you see a big crack, an inch across. Plus, the

“The house is wired with three types of wiring:

foundation is obviously rotating and will need to be

Romex®, flexible metal cable, and knob-and-tube

replaced. This lot doesn’t slope much, but that corner

wiring. Especially in attics and at ceiling-mounted

is the high side. So chances are, surface water has

fixtures, knob-and-tube’s insulation becomes brittle

collected there over the years and exerted pressure on

and breaks down. So it’s not surprising that a lot of

the foundation.

insurers won’t write you a policy if there’s knob-and-

“Originally, there were shallow footings and a

tube still in use.

crawl space under the whole house. Later, they dug

“This mixture of wiring types is pretty typical in

out this section to create enough headroom for a

older houses with electrical systems that haven’t been

laundry area and a place for the water heater. So

overhauled. That and it’s not uncommon to see a lot

this retaining wall between the crawl space and the

of extension cords because there aren’t enough

laundry room is interesting. It’s hard to say exactly

outlets. That’s something that should be addressed

how far down the concrete goes because the bottom

because it’s a fire hazard, not to mention very

half of the wall is parged with mortar. How do you

inconvenient.

put a retaining wall directly under an existing foot-

“Grounding is the other big issue. In this house

ing? Well, you usually can’t in a situation like this. Or most of the receptacles are the three-hole type. But

at least not without a lot of engineering and expense.

my tester showed that a number of them were not, in

So though this wall above feels solid (he raps the wall

fact, grounded, so an electrician needs to examine

panel with his fist), a structural engineer needs to

and upgrade them. There are several GFCI-protected

have a look.”

outlets but more need to be added, especially in the

basement laundry area. Given the age and condition

of the service panel, a housewide electrical upgrade

would be a good idea soon.”

6

I N T RO D U C T I O N

“Back to the water heater. It leans. A new pad

would bring it to a vertical position. The water pipes

above the water heater are not bonded for electri-

cal safety (see p. 139). The flue pipe venting the unit slopes downward before it slopes up, which can leak

flue gases and corrode the flue prematurely. The

single-wall vent pipe is penetrating a wooden wall,

which is a code violation. Single-wall vents need at

least 6 in. clearance from combustibles. The tank has

only one seismic strap, there should be two. There’s

a TPR (temperature and pressure relief) valve, but it

uses flexible pipe for a discharge valve, which isn’t al-

lowed because it could obstruct the discharge flow.

“The waste piping consists of cast-iron, galvanized-

steel, copper, and ABS piping. Pretty typical to have a

little bit of everything in an older house. The old cast-

This gas-fired water heater has several issues that

need to be corrected, including a pad that leans, sup-

iron pipes are rusty from previous leaks and should

ply pipes that are not electrically bonded, and a flue

be replaced.”

pipe that slopes downward.

STEP 8: HEATING AND COOLING SYSTEM

“There’s a gas-fired furnace in the subfloor area

STEP 7: PLUMBING

(crawl space). It has a fan-powered, induced-draft

“The plate on the 40-gal., gas-fired water heater gives

venting system that draws exhaust fumes through

an ANSI (American National Standards Institute)

a heat exchanger for better efficiency. Furnaces like

date of 2006. I usually add 2 years to give me a ball-

park date of when it was installed. So this one was

installed around 2008, which puts it at about half of

its useful life. Nationally, water heaters average about

11 years. Out here we get about 15 years out of them

because the water quality is good.

“This water heater has a number of issues, starting

with a 1⁄2-in. water supply pipe that will restrict flow.

The larger problem, though, is that the supply main

(or house service main) leading to the building is

1⁄2-in.-dia. galvanized steel pipe. The minimum

standard for modern construction is 3⁄4-in. copper.

So we’ve got undersize supply pipes throughout

the house and water flow that has been further

constricted by deposit buildup inside the galvanized

pipe. When I tested the water pressure outside it was

70 psi, which is within a normal range. But with

supply piping this small, you can bank on a signifi-

This furnace did not respond to its controls and its

cant drop in water flow when you open several faucets

heat exchanger was not accessible to visual inspec-

at the same time.

tion, so it should be examined by an HVAC specialist.

I N T RO D U C T I O N 7

this are often called ‘plus-80 systems’ because their

efficiency is typically rated at 80% or better. The

data plate on the furnace indicates that the unit was

manufactured in 2002, which means it’s about half-

way through its life.

“This furnace did not respond to its controls and

its heat exchanger was not accessible to visual inspec-

tion (for cracks), so the furnace should be examined

by an HVAC specialist and repaired as necessary to

operate properly. This is a good recommendation for

any type of heating/cooling system; they have become

so complex and high-tech.

Faced with an existing switch box that was trouble-

“Two other things I noticed. The service-disconnect

some to move, a homeowner got creative with the

fuse is too large for the rating listed on the unit; it

jamb trim instead.

should be replaced with a properly sized fuse. And

the furnace has aluminum vent piping, which is not

an approved gas appliance venting material. Most

jurisdictions now require the use of double-wall,

Type B vent piping, which is cooler, more efficient,

and requires only 1-in. clearance to combustibles.”

STEP 9: CHIMNEYS, FLUES,

AND FIREPLACES

“This house doesn’t have a masonry chimney. What-

ever the material of a chimney or flue pipe, it must be

intact to prevent superheated gases from escaping

and setting fire to combustible materials, such as

wood framing. Inspectors should also note clearance

distances from chimneys or flues to combustibles,

which are specified by building codes.”

Old windows and doors lend a lot of charm; they can

also leak a lot of energy.

STEP 10: INTERIOR

“Closets tell a lot of secrets. Nobody paints them, so

that’s where you’re going to see cracks or stains from

STEP 11: DOORS AND WINDOWS

roof leaks. Little cracks may not mean anything,

“Inspections aren’t just about solving mysteries.

but bigger cracks can telegraph shifting founda-

Sometimes nonconforming conditions are right out

tions. Normally, painters come in and patch or fix

in the open. The bedroom casement window (not

up everything so an inspector is at somewhat of a

shown), for example, is too small for egress if there

disadvantage. Since owners don’t usually want to pay

were a fire. And it swings open out onto a deck, which

to paint closets, these areas can be the key to figuring

is a safety issue because someone could walk into it

out what’s going on.”

and get hurt. No code says you can’t have a window

opening onto a deck, but there’s no point in asking

for trouble.

8

I N T RO D U C T I O N

“Regarding egress, if they are the house’s original

windows, they don’t have to be changed. But if

they were added later and are too small to allow

egress—and permits were not pulled when they

were installed—that could become a big issue. At

some point building codes were violated and may

have to be set right. A lot of the houses I inspect are

older so many of them don’t meet code requirements

for egress. Houses built in the 1950s, for example,

often have a lot of smaller modern windows high up

so there’s no way you could crawl in or out of them.

In my reports I have to point out these issues so buy-

ers know what they are getting into. If such windows

are in a bedroom, they may need to be upgraded.”

The area under the kitchen sink is a prime hunting

STEP 12: KITCHEN AND BATHROOMS

ground for inspectors. Even little leaks from faucet

“This kitchen’s in the middle of a major overhaul so

washers can, in time, soak the cabinet and cause it to

deteriorate.

there are things that, obviously, the owner knows

about, like the cabinet pulls that haven’t been

installed yet and the uncapped gas valve that will

“When several faucets are opened at the same

connect to the stove. Inspectors can’t make assump-

time, the water flow drops dramatically, not surpris-

tions about the future. If a detail is unsafe or doesn’t

ing since we know that the main supply pipe is only

1

meet code when I make my inspection, it goes into

⁄2-in.-dia. galvanized steel. Bathroom drains are

the report.

pretty slow, particularly the tub’s, so they should

“There are openings in the wall of the cabinet

probably be unclogged. Replacing both supply and

below the sink that need to be repaired. Sink edges

DWV (drain, waste, and vent) pipes may not be too

need caulking to keep water from entering between

far off.

the sink and the countertop. There is some moisture

“Both bath fans vent into the attic, so both need

damage to the cabinet beneath the sink, which may

extension ducts to vent moisture to the building ex-

be caused by the trap arm’s negative slope or the

terior. Venting moist air into the attic is never a good

drain outflow being too high. In any event, the sink

idea. Excess moisture trapped in a house is a recipe

drainpipes need to be reconfigured.

for mold and rot.”

“On a positive note, there are several GFCI-protected

receptacles in the kitchen, which is a good safety

STEP 13: GARAGE AND ATTACHED

feature. There are also GFCIs in the bathrooms.

STRUCTURES

“The house has two bathrooms, with fixtures that

“There is a detached garage at the back of the lot that

are worn but serviceable. Tub tile joints and the like

I did not inspect, as requested. From what I know

need caulking. Notably, the toilets in both bathrooms

about garages of this era, its construction is outdated

are cramped. According to modern practice in Cali-

with a shallow foundation. Often times the mud-

fornia, there should be at least 21 in. of clear space

sills are in contact with the ground. So lots of rot.

in front of the toilet and at least 30 in. of space side

No drainage to speak of and a concrete floor that’s

to side, including the width of the toilet (see “Bath

cracked and uneven because there’s no steel in it.

Fixture Clearances” on p. 261).

I N T RO D U C T I O N 9

This deck’s posts rest on precast concrete pier blocks

sitting on top of the ground. If an earthquake or hur-

ricane struck, the blocks could move, causing the deck

to settle or collapse.

“The most common attached structures are decks.

Seen from underneath, the joists of this deck are

spaced too widely. Presently there are only undersize

galvanized screws securing the deck ledger to the

house framing. Screws this small could shear off if

Clothes for a crawl space: hat, heavy-duty leather

the deck became overloaded, the ledgers would fall

boots, sturdy coveralls, kneepads, a tight-fitting mask

and the whole thing would collapse. At a minimum,

with a HEPA filter, and heavy-duty leather gloves over

a pair of rubber ones.

the ledger should be attached with structural screws

designed for this purpose along with lateral load

connectors. Metal connectors should reinforce all

connections, whether joists to ledger, stair treads

STEP 14: HAZARDOUS MATERIALS

to deck, or treads to stringers. There is no diagonal

“The hazards of lead paint and asbestos are pretty

bracing so if there were any movement—whether

well documented. They are generally not a problem

seismic or a crowd of people horsing around on the

unless they become airborne. So if a renovation is

deck—the structure could collapse. Added to which,

likely to disturb them, it’s best to hire an abatement

the deck posts rest on precast concrete pier blocks

specialist trained to minimize contamination and

just sitting on top of the ground. In a shake-up they’d

dispose of materials safely.

‘walk.’ Posts should be anchored to solid footings.

“Because of their importance, hazardous materi-

“Railings are another critical point. The railing

als get a separate section in my reports. As real as

height may be OK, but railings now are supposed to

hazardous materials are to homeowners, they’re of

be able to resist 200 lb. of force, 42 in. up from the

even more concern to me. I frequently crawl through

deck, which translates to a lot of torque. So railing

hazmats during an inspection, so I take dressing the

post-to-deck connections also need tension ties.”

part very seriously.

10

I N T RO D U C T I O N

“When it’s time to explore a crawl space—usually

the last part of an inspection—I suit up. Hat,

heavy-duty leather boots, sturdy coveralls, kneepads,

a tight-fitting mask with a HEPA filter, and heavy-

duty leather gloves over a pair of rubber ones. The

rubber gloves protect you from toxic chemicals such

as copper naphthenate, a wood preservative that

cut-rate contractors sometimes apply improperly and

indiscriminately when doing mudsill and subfloor

repairs. The few times I have touched chemical-

fouled areas when not wearing rubberized gloves,

I felt sick for days.

“Sometimes you also find naturally occurring

conditions under a house that are almost as noxious as

the illegal chemicals you may find. Such as raccoon

latrines. They actually dig a trench for communal use.

“There’s less than 18 in. of headroom in there, but I

Whew! When it’s time to go home, I remove the cover-

confirmed some hunches I had about the foundation.”

alls and put them into a plastic storage bin immedi-

ately. I don’t want that stuff wafting around my van.”

POSTSCRIPT

After Brian emerges from the crawl space. “It was pretty tight in there, less than 18 in. of headroom in places.

But I confirmed some hunches I had about the perim-

eter foundation in front. The dirt floor of the crawl

space was already 1 ft. below grade and the top of the

mudsill was buried 3 in. under the dirt of the floor. (A mudsill is supposed to be at least 6 in. above grade.)

So if anything, the foundation and subfloor framing

of the porch were even worse than I suspected. But

that’s why you try to go everywhere you can.”

Safety

Keeping safe mostly takes using common sense and

trusting your gut. Above all, don’t go anyplace or per-

form any inspection task that doesn’t feel safe to you.

STAY OFF ROOFS that are wet or too steep, aren’t

easily accessed, or are covered with slick roofing

materials such as slate, tile, or metal. Some inspec-

tors simply refuse to get on a roof as part of their

inspection. If a roof is relatively low pitch or flat and If you are not comfortable making a rooftop inspection, don’t. If you ascend a ladder, make sure it is se-

is easily accessed—such as the roof shown at right—

curely footed and keep your hips between the ladder’s

inspecting it seems straightforward.

side rails.

I N T RO D U C T I O N 11

RESPECT ELECTRICITY. For starters, keep your

GIVE YOURSELF ROOM. Older houses frequently

distance from electrical service cables if you do

have small access openings to attics and crawl

inspect a roof (see p. 124). If it’s raining or misty, spaces. As noted on p. 77, attic hatches should be however, stay away: Electricity can arc (jump) to

at least 22 in. by 30 in., with 30 in. of headroom. In

nearby objects, such as a person on a metal ladder.

crawl spaces, 2 ft. of headroom is minimal; 18 in. of

Likewise, if an electrical panel is in a damp base-

headroom is really tight. Keep in mind that you may

ment, stay out. Licensed electricians routinely refuse

need to get out of confined spaces in a hurry. So if, for to enter such locations.

example, you see animal droppings in a crawl space

If you’re not sure if an object is energized with

or an attic, staying out may be the wiser course.

electrical current, test it with a voltage tester. The

SHED LIGHT ON THE SUBJECT. Inspectors are

voltage tester shown in the photo on the facing page

paid to see things, so don’t scrimp on flashlights.

doesn’t need to touch a conductor directly. It can also

For about $100 you can get a powerful, rechargeable

detect current when its tip is touched to a service

light. Headlamps free up your hands but a flashlight

panel cover, to the plastic sheathing of a wire, or to a

is easier to focus and aim at something you want to

suspect metal duct. Always test a tester first, to be sure see well.

it’s working correctly.

DRESS FOR WORK. You can wear street clothes

Chapter 6 has more on electrical safety, including

for most of an inspection. But when it’s time to

panel inspections. National Electrical Code require-

inspect an attic, an unfinished basement, or a roof,

ments for inspecting an energized panel are listed

protect yourself by wearing soft-rubber-soled shoes

(and shown) on p. 123.

that won’t slip, eye protection, and heavy gloves. If

LADDER SAFETY

For the greatest safety and durability,

sections overlap about one-quarter, and a ladder

buy a Type IA ladder, which is a construction-grade

leaning against a building should be set away from

ladder rated for 300 lb. For most home inspectors,

the wall about one-quarter of the ladder’s extended

the choice will be between aluminum and fiberglass.

length.

Fiberglass ladders are sturdy, nonconductive, and

Ladders must be solidly footed to be safe, espe-

more expensive than aluminum. Aluminum ladders

cially extension ladders. After setting up the ladder

are a reasonable compromise in price and weight but

so that its sides are as plumb as possible, stand on the

are electrically conductive. Note, however, that all

bottom rungs to seat the feet. Adjustable leg levelers

ladder materials can conduct electricity if they’re wet.

are available for leveling ladders on slopes. If you’re

As you work, always keep your hips within the lad-

at all unsure about the ladder’s footing, stake its bot-

der’s sides.

tom to prevent “creeping.”

Safe working lengths of ladders are less than their

Never place ladder feet on a section of sloping roof

nominal lengths. When using an 8-ft. stepladder, for

to inspect a higher roof. The feet might slip, espe-

example, stand no higher than 6 ft. on it, and don’t

cially if the roofing has a granular surface or wood

stand on the top step. Likewise, a 32-ft. extension lad-

shingles could tear out. Instead of inspecting the roof,

der is only 26 ft. to 28 ft. long when extended. Ladder

you might suddenly be seeing stars. Play it safe.

12

I N T RO D U C T I O N

1

7

2

3

4

6

5

9

8

10

11

13

12

Brian’s tool belt: 1, water pressure gauge; 2, offset screwdriver; 3, six-in-one screwdriver; 4, voltage tester (noncontact tester); 5, jeweler’s screwdriver; 6, moisture meter; 7, rechargeable flashlight; 8, needle-nose pliers; 9, pocket level; 10, utility knife; 11, three-prong tester; 12, gas meter wrench; 13, tape measure.

you’ll be crawling through hazmat territory, suit up

“Pressure gauges check water pressure as part of

in coveralls, kneepads, boots, a respirator mask, eye

ASHI standards. Typical pressure is 40 lb. to 80 lb. If

protection, and nitrile rubber gloves inside heavy

the pressure is over 100 lb., I tell the homeowner to

leather gloves, as shown in the right photo on p. 10.

get a pressure regulator; if it’s under 40 lb., I say, ‘See how it works for you, you may need to get a pressur-Brian’s Tool Belt

izing system.’

Some inspectors’ tool belts are so crammed with

“My regular screwdriver is a six in one. It’s got two stuff that they look like walking hardware stores.

different sizes of flat heads and Phillips®, and if you

In comparison, the contents of Brian’s Cogley’s tool

take the screwdriver bits out, you have sockets with

belt are pretty minimal. Typically, he doesn’t wear it;

two different hex sizes, both of which are pretty stan-

he sets it by the front door when he arrives and takes

dard for HVAC panels and for electrical panels. A six

out tools as he needs them. Here are Brian’s most-

in one is useful because you need only one to handle

used tools, with a typical task or two in his own

most situations. The cheapest one is about $2.50; it’s

words for each.

orange so you can see it in a crawl space, but if you

lose it, no big deal.

I N T RO D U C T I O N 13

“An offset screwdriver is useful in tight areas, such turn on the furnace by touching the two sides of the

as in an older house where panel access is obstructed

pliers to thermostat terminals, I know the thermostat

by framing. In other words, places where a straight

is bad.

screwdriver won’t fit.

“A little pocket level is handy to see if furnace

“A voltage detector is probably the single most

ducts are sloped in the right direction. If the flue of

important electrical tool an inspector has. The type I

a high-efficiency, induced-draft furnace is improp-

use, also called a noncontact voltage detector, can tell

erly sloped, the unit can rust out in 2 years or 3 years

if a panel is energized without removing the panel

instead of the 20-some years that they are supposed

cover or if a wire in a crawl space is energized by

to last.

holding the tester’s point to the wire sheathing. Mine

“I use a tape measure to check railing heights,

beeps or flashes when it detects voltage. It also beeps

stair treads, and openings between railings. I also

when it shuts itself off to save battery life.

use it to measure ceiling heights because in older

“My rechargeable flashlight can cast a focused

houses there are a lot of nonconforming spaces. If a

beam 100 ft. With run-of-the-mill battery-powered

listing says ‘three bedrooms’ and a bedroom ceiling

flashlights, you can’t really see anything. A super-

must be 7 ft. 6 in. to satisfy local codes and a couple

bright flashlight is one of the most important tools

bedrooms are actually 7 ft. 5 in., I need to let my

you can have. This one cost about $100. Our job is to

clients know.

see things, so anything that helps you see is worth

“My primary use for a utility knife is to score

the extra money.

around the edges of electrical subpanels that have

“I also carry a tiny jeweler’s screwdriver because been painted over. (Happens all the time.) I don’t

I like to show homeowners how to reset the seismic

want to cop out and say ‘I wasn’t able to look at the

shut-off valve on a gas line. (Most of the devices are

panel because somebody painted over it’ and I don’t

tripped by mechanical action or motion and have a

want to damage the walls. With a nice sharp razor

tiny little reset screw.) I don’t actually reset the valve, you can score the paint around the edges and get the

but I think it’s important for people to know how.

panel cover off cleanly without ripping off the paper

“I don’t use a moisture meter all that much, most

facing of the drywall.

often I bring it out to prove or disprove something.

“Three-prong testers tell you if a receptacle is

In fact, I generally don’t let people know I have one

properly wired or, if not, what’s incorrect. The model

because they sometimes get carried away and want

shown on p. 13 has a little GFCI button that tells you to test every last stain. If it’s raining, say, and a client if a receptacle is GFCI protected.

is freaking out that their vinyl windows are leaking,

“The gas meter wrench is another tool I use to

I might use the meter to show them, ‘Look, it’s bone

educate clients—in this case, to show them how to

dry’ and put their mind at ease. My Surveymaster

physically turn off the gas. It’s important to know.

meter has both probes and a deep-scan sensor so

I also show them how to turn off the water and the

it can distinguish between subsurface and surface

electrical. Folks appreciate that you’re looking out

moisture. Very useful if, say, there is wetness around

for them.”

the base of a toilet and you want to see if there is

moisture under the toilet as well.

Taking Notes on Site

“Needle-nose pliers are handy for a couple of

“I use a Fujitsu® Stylistic® tablet to take notes; I buy

inspection tasks. I use them to pull up a corner of

them used on eBay®. I own three now and have killed

carpet in a closet, for example, to see if there are

two in the last 10 years. Stuff happens. Job sites are

hardwood floors underneath. Sometimes I use pliers

hard on computers.

to bypass thermostats that are not working. If I can

14

I N T RO D U C T I O N

A seasoned home inspector who has been through

it all before can be a calming presence and keep

things moving. Rather than playing everything by the

book, he knows that a personal touch is often a better

way to proceed. For example, most clients are curi-

ous about what’s going on with a house so, if it feels

right, why not invite them along for the adventure?

EXPLORING DOWN UNDER

“When clients want to go under the house with me,

I say, ‘Sure, let’s go check it out.’ I loan them cover-

alls and a powerful flashlight, and have them put on

nitrile gloves, then leather gloves, and a respirator.

A tablet computer with a stylus is a handy way to

record inspection notes on site.

“I don’t use special inspection software, just a

Word doc that I’ve modified and a Windows® Journal

for handwritten notes, using the tablet stylus. I dump

everything—along with photos—into my desktop

computer when I get home and try to make some

sense out of it that night. Then I send it to my editor

who inserts the photos, formats the report, and

otherwise makes me look like I understand gram-

mar. After he sends it back to me, I reread his edited

version, turn it into a PDF, and send it to the client.

“The onsite inspection is the easy part. Creating

a useful and accurate report is what takes the time.

Some inspectors use a checklist-style report system,

but I don’t think those can do justice to the diverse

and unique housing stock we have around here.”

Taking Care of Clients

Buying and selling a house is stressful for everyone

involved, whether buyer, seller, or real estate agent.

House prices and closing fees are huge and home

inspections aren’t cheap either. Every closing has

myriad details to get right and, especially when the

Living the dream. Most homeowners are curious about

what’s going on with their house. A brave few are

housing market is hot, everything seems to happen at

willing to suit up and crawl under the house with the

breakneck speeds. So a little TLC goes a long way.

inspector.

I N T RO D U C T I O N 15

And it is a respirator, by the way, not just a cheap dust and over here, a hold-down.’ Clients usually won’t

mask. I buy respirators in boxes of 25 and three-packs

want to go everywhere you go because you have to

of gloves.

go everywhere, so for some tasks they will just sit and

“It’s great when they go under the house because

watch you at a distance.

it makes things way easier to explain. When you’re

“But when they see the lengths you’re willing to

trying to explain a seismic retrofit for example, you

go to thoroughly inspect their place, some kind of

can say, ‘Right here is where a piece of plywood has

bonding takes place and you’re much less likely to

to go, right here is where an anchor bolt needs to be,

have hassles about small things. They may never go

under the house again, but if they have retrofit work

done there later, they can visualize to a degree what

is going on. A lot of time I will take a picture of them

under the house, all dirty with the mask on, and send

it to them or clip it to the report.”

SAVING TIME, SOLVING PROBLEMS

“I always have extra locks on hand for when the main

electrical panel in a garage, or a storage room is

padlocked. Rather than take a hard line and say, ‘It’s

inaccessible, I can’t inspect it, and if I come back it’s going to be 150 bucks,’ I can just say, ‘Look, call the

listing agent and ask if it’s OK with the homeowner

if I cut the lock, I’ve got another lock, and I’ll leave

Sometimes an inspector needs to gain access to do a

thorough inspection. Left, a lopper to cut back bushes; the keys.’ It’s a nice way to build your reputation as a

right, a bolt cutter to snip padlocks. Of course, get problem solver rather than some hard-nose with his

permission before you cut.

hand out for a check. It just makes the transaction

go smoothly for everyone and keeps things moving

forward.”

PUTTING COMMON COURTESY TO WORK

“If I open an attic hatch and a bunch of crud falls

on the floor, a little whisk broom and dustpan are

perfect. It’s just common courtesy to sweep it up.

If I came home and someone left me a mess, I’d be

peeved. So I clean it up as soon as I’m finished with

that inspection point. Or if the attic access in an old

house is through a closet where clothes are stored, I’ll

cover them up with an old sheet before I go up. If you

do things right, homeowners will hardly know you’ve

been there.”

Being thoughtful doesn’t cost much. Replace locks

you must cut; provide gloves, a respirator mask, and

coveralls if a client wants to join you under the house;

and sweep up any mess you make.

16

I N T RO D U C T I O N

CHAPTER 1

The WALK-AROUND

THERE ARE MANY VARIABLES that make a property de-

sirable, including lot size, views, vegetation, and proximity to services. But when evaluating a lot's suitability as a house site, the three most important criteria are slope, drainage, and soil composition.

A level lot is generally the easiest to build on. Yet as

towns and cities become built up, the only lots available are often those once thought to be marginal—too steep

or too wet to build on. Such conditions can be overcome

to a degree by technology: by properly engineered founda-

tions, effective drainage systems, careful grading, retaining walls, sidewalks, and driveways that disperse water

rather than concentrate it—in other words, elements that

complement a site rather than fight it.

T H E WA L K- A RO U N D 17

From a builder's perspective, soil composition is

largely a matter of how well water moves through

it. Sandier soils drain better, whereas clay soils are

less permeable and more likely to become saturated.

So saturated, in fact, that as some clay soils expand

and contract, they raise and lower the houses built

atop them! Soil stability, in turn, can be impacted by

slope, as water flows toward and collects against the

uphill side of a foundation, exerts lateral pressure

on foundation walls, and, in extreme cases, causes

foundation failure.

It's difficult to generalize about the cost of remedy-

ing site conditions. Keeping gutters and downspouts

clear, for example, costs little but does much to keep

water from collecting next to a foundation. On the

other hand, solutions such as retrofitting perimeter

If a year-round creek is located on a low-lying part

drains can be big-ticket items. First you need to find

of a lot, it may be channeling runoff or underground

out what the underlying conditions are. So a thor-

springs. It does not necessarily indicate that the water

table is high.

ough inspection will generally start with an obser-

vant walk around the site.

In response, governmental agencies began iden-

Drainage and Grading

tifying areas subject to flooding, and the mapping

Over the eons, Nature has devised an elaborate drain-

continues to this day. In 2004, the Federal Emergency

age system to accommodate the movement of water.

Management Agency (FEMA) began a massive project

Rain soaks into the ground, ground water flows in

to update and digitize floodplain maps across the

underground runnels and filters into aquifers, or sur-

United States. To see if a property is in a floodplain

faces as streams and rivers. Low-lying areas become

go to www.floodsmart.gov. Enter the state, county, marshes, bogs, ponds, and lakes. Periodically, heavy

and town to learn the risk of flooding in your area.

storms cause water to overflow these natural chan-

City and county planning departments should also

nels and basins, and flooding occurs. The areas along

have detailed maps.

rivers that periodically flood are called floodplains.

With the rising seas and storm surges associated

In the old days, floodplains seemed like good

with global warming, building in coastal floodplains

places to build (especially during dry years). Such

has also become a concern. The National Oceanic

land was flat, fertile, and accessible to river transport.

and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) estimates

As long as farms were small and spread out, flooding

that 16.4 million people (5% of the U.S. population)

affected relatively few people. During the boom years

resided in a coastal floodplain in 2010 (see stateofthe

that followed World War II, however, the shortage of

coast.noaa.gov/pop100yr).

flat building lots led to the unwise and widespread

Presently, federal flood insurance is available to

practice of developing floodplains. Millions of homes

homeowners in communities that flood periodically.

were built on them. In most years, such sites were

But whether such federal assistance will survive the

dry, but rare as floods might be, they came as a nasty

current rage for budget cutting and fiscal austerity is

shock to homeowners who had no idea their homes

anyone’s guess.

were on a floodplain.

18

T H E WA L K- A RO U N D

GRADING (reshaping) the site can slow runoff by

intercepting it with terraces, mounds, or swales (de-

pressions) perpendicular to a steep slope. There’s the

WATER TABLES

same amount of water, of course, it’s just diverted so

that the runoff isn’t as concentrated or, in the case of

surface rivulets, doesn’t run as fast or erode as much.

Groundwater will flow downward

Grading takes skill, however. On a steep site, ex-

until it hits an impervious layer, typically dense clay

cavating a huge hole can hasten underground runoff

or rock. At that point it will run more or less horizon-

tally or pond up because the earth beneath it is satu-

(and erosion) because water is no longer slowed by

rated. This level is called the water table. Water tables soil in its path. This is evident when you see a founda-often rise in response to heavy rains and surface

tion excavation quickly fill with water or massive

runoff. Sites with high water tables are ill-suited to

erosion around a foundation perimeter.

septic systems and full basements because water may

SITE DRAINAGE

penetrate both. Connecting to a municipal sewer sys-

can be an expensive way to

tem and building a house on a slab or a crawl space

remove excess water but is sometimes the only strat-

are better strategies where seasonal water tables are

egy that works on a chronically wet site. Complex

only a few feet below the surface.

drainage solutions are typically reviewed by a soils

engineer: Most involve excavating a trench, filling

the trench bottom with gravel, installing a network

of perforated drainpipes, and carefully backfilling.

Swale drains (also called curtain drains) typically

CONTROLLING SITE RUNOFF

intercept water flow some distance above a house and

Surface runoff can occur any time there are heavy or

reroute it.

sustained rains. If a building site is on a slope or sur-

rounded by hills, the concentration of runoff can be

considerable. If the soil is exposed, runoff will hasten

erosion, which is particularly a problem if there has

been excavation recently and new plantings are not

yet established. In low-lying properties, runoff may

pond up unless it is diverted into a storm drain.

There are several ways to reduce erosion, keep run-

off away from a house foundation, and prevent water

from seeping into a basement or crawl space. Please

note that grading and drainage solutions can be quite

complex; this list is just a cursory overview.

PLANTING VEGETATION, whether ground

cover, grasses, or bushes, is the most effective way to

stop erosion. But plantings need to be skillfully done

and watered and maintained for several months to

allow the plants to establish roots. Mulching a bare

site will reduce erosion as long as rains are not too

heavy but is at best a stopgap measure. We’ll say more

Unsupported hillside soil can be a real problem in wet

weather. A landscaping contractor can suggest native

about landscaping later.

or low-maintenance plants to support the soil and

reduce erosion.

T H E WA L K- A RO U N D 19

At a low point in the land, runoff needs to go some-

where. If a property is large enough, the water may

FOUNDATION DRAINAGE

pond up or be absorbed into the ground. If the water

collects over a septic system leeching field or tank,

Downspout

however, that’s potentially a health problem. The

septic tank may fill with water and back up, or efflu-

Soil sloping

at 1:20 ratio

via may rise toward the surface rather than draining

away from

house

down into the soil. A strong septic smell may result.

4-in. solid plastic

drain 2 ft. below

Where natural dispersal is not an option, runoff

grade

should be directed into a catch basin. (Catch basins

Waterproofing

typically consist of a porous concrete or concrete-

membrane on

foundation wall

block basin, with perforated pipes radiating out from

it. Gravel around the basin and pipes aids dispersal.)

Foam board or

asphalt protector

In suburban and urban areas, runoff is usually di-

board

rected into a city storm drain.

Porous backfill

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

■■ Is there standing water on the property? If there

is, is it long-standing (algae on surface, lush

vegetation, and so on) or does it seem to be the

Filter fabric

Footing

temporary runoff of a recent storm?

3/4-in. gravel

■■ When walking the lot, can you see springs, rivu-

4-in. perforated

lets, streams, or the like? Are any of the low-lying

plastic perimeter drain

areas damp? If so, note them on a quick sketch of

the lot.

4-in. solid

■■ What is the general lay of the land: flat, gently

plastic drain

sloping, steeply inclined? Are any of the hillsides

eroded? Are there adjacent lots above or below

the one you’re inspecting?

■■ Where on the lot is the house located? If there

were a downpour, would runoff head toward the

DIRECTING WATER AWAY

house or away from it?

FROM THE HOUSE

■■ Has any portion of the lot been recently exca-

The soil around the house should also be graded

vated—say, within the last 5 years? Has vegeta-

tion grown over the excavated areas or is bare

properly. For starters, the bottom of the siding

soil visible?

should be at least 6 in. to 8 in. above grade (soil

■■ Is there evidence of grading such as swales

level). Around the perimeter, the soil should slope

running perpendicular to a slope? If local codes

downward away from the house at a rate of at least

require permits for grading that affects adjacent

6 in. within the first 10 ft. Because foot traffic will

properties, were permits pulled?

compact the soil, it may be necessary to regrade the

■■ Are there surface drains on the lot? Are there

soil around the house from time to time. Inspec-

other signs of a high water table?

tors should take note of any soil near the house that

■■ As you walk the lot, are there septic smells, espe-

cially in low-lying or damp ground?

slopes downward toward the house.

Even with proper grading, however, a certain

■■ If the property is near a large river or a seacoast,

is it in a floodplain?

amount of water is going to accumulate near the

20 THE WALK-AROUND

house, whether from surface or roof runoff. Keeping

NOTE : Downspouts should not connect to footing

gutters and downspouts clear is essential. Equally

drains; rather they should terminate in solid drain-

important is foundation drainage that’s properly

pipes buried roughly 2 ft. below the surface.

installed.

As shown in the drawing on the facing page, foun-

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

dation drainage can be complicated. It is typically

■

■

Are gutters and downspouts complete, con-

installed after foundation walls are poured but before

nected, and clear of debris? (Flush them with a

the excavation is backfilled. (Not surprisingly, ret-

garden hose to be sure.)

rofitting such drainage is expensive and disruptive.)

■

■

Do downspouts terminate into subsurface drain-

A bed of gravel is poured around the perimeter, just

pipes, pipes running above ground, onto a splash

block, or just empty out onto the lawn? (Sub-

below the level of the footings. Perforated footing

surface drains are preferred.)

drains are placed—holes down—in the bed and care-

■

■

Are there any signs of erosion or wet ground at

fully topped with additional gravel. (The gravel bed

the base of the downspout?

may also be wrapped with a fabric filter to keep soil

■

■

Are there surface drains or sump pump enclo-

from clogging pipe openings.) Details vary, but foun-

sures near the foundation? (They indicate a high

dation walls are usually sealed with a water-resistant

water table or persistent drainage issues.) Are

coating or membrane, insulated, and then backfilled

both in working order?

with a porous mixture of sandy soil and small gravel.

■

■

Do discharge pipes stick out of a foundation

wall—say, for a basement sump pump?

■

■

Does the ground consistently slope down and

away from the house or do portions slope toward

the house? Are there sunken areas within 10 ft. of

the foundation?

■

■

Is vegetation growing against the house? Plants

retain water and can contribute to basement

dampness. If there is a sprinkler system, turn it

on: Do jets wet the house?

Retaining Walls

Correctly built, retaining walls employ both grading

and drainage. The grading part is obvious: a slop-

ing lot is reshaped to create level terraces, with walls

holding back (retaining) the soil of the terrace above.

Retaining walls are usually classified as wet (stones,

blocks, or bricks are laid up with mortar) or dry (built

without mortar). In addition to laid-up masonry

units, retaining walls may also be built from poured

concrete, timbers, railroad ties, recycled concrete

walkways, and so on.

Less apparent is the need to provide adequate

drainage behind a retaining wall, so the soil doesn’t

Seeing a downspout terminate in a subsurface drain

does not mean the system is functional. This system’s

become saturated. Without drainage, hydrostatic

subsurface drains are badly clogged. Test all sub-

pressure can crack mortared joints or, in time, push a

surface drains periodically.

wall over. At the very least, the back (uphill) side of a T H E WA L K- A RO U N D 21

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

■

■

Does the retaining wall have weep holes and, if

so, are they filled with dirt or open? (Water run-

ning out of the weep holes is a good sign.)

■

■

Are stones loose or bulging out from the face?

If it has been built without mortar, it can be re-

paired by tearing down the wall till you get to the

loose section and then rebuilt.

■

■

Is the wall cracked or heaving outward? Surface

cracks are generally not a problem, but through

cracks wider than 1⁄2 in., in which one side has

moved farther than the other, should be inspected

by a soils engineer.

■

■

In cold regions, if the base of a wall has heaved

and become dislodged, with soil and water ooz-

ing out from underneath, you are probably look-

Dry-stack retaining walls are not mortared, but the

ing at frost heaving.

bottom course of blocks must be placed on an ad-

■

■

If wood retaining walls are slumping, probe their

equate footing. A screwdriver can be used to check

for concrete or gravel footings, neither of which was

back face to see if the wood is rotting.

found here.

■

■

What are other retaining walls in the neighbor-

hood doing? If most are leaning in the same

direction, the property may be in a slide zone.

In which case, sidewalk slabs may also tilt in the

retaining wall should have a bed of gravel backfilled

same direction. In earthquake-prone regions,

along its base. Concrete and concrete block walls

check city records to see if the house is in a slide

need weep holes placed every 4 ft. to 8 ft. to allow

area or a fault zone.

water to drain out. Retaining walls in especially wet

slopes or slide zones may also require drainpipe

systems.

Where a hillside is unstable, such as in a slide zone,

retaining walls may also need anchors that tie them

to the hills. Anchors vary according to the wall mate-

rial used, but most are T-shaped elements that run

perpendicular to the face of the wall. The foot of each

T-anchor is spliced to the face of the retaining wall;

the body of each T runs back into the hillside and

is held in place by the weight of soil backfilled on

top of it.

In actual practice, most retaining walls are done

quickly, without drains, gravel backfill, or anchors.

Consequently, though walls ideally should be verti-

cal, or perhaps lean into the hillside, most lean away

from the hillside and have been pushed outward by

lateral pressures. Finally, if a retaining wall is taller The higher a retaining wall, the more soil and soil pressure it must withstand. This wall is failing. Generally,

than 4 ft., most building codes require that it be

new walls higher than 4 ft. must be designed by a

designed by an engineer.

qualified engineer.

22 THE WALK-AROUND

The parallel cracks in this asphalt roadway suggest

Cracked, lifted, or uneven sidewalks represent a trip-

that we are looking at a slide area. Have a geotechnical

ping hazard and should be repaired. In most towns this

or soils engineer review the site and search for previ-

is the homeowner’s responsibility.

ous slippage in the area.

Sidewalks

permissions needed to make repairs. (A homeowner

During the site walk-around, inspect the condition

can’t just go in and chop offending roots: Trees lining

of sidewalks, driveways, paved areas such as patios,

the streets are generally considered city property, and

and incidental objects such as in-ground trash bins.

trees deemed historic enjoy additional protections.)

These objects are rarely a cause for concern, but if

Homeowners can wait till the city inspects sidewalks,

they are in poor repair they may look bad, present

but given the liability involved, it’s in homeowners’

a tripping hazard, or when sloped improperly, may

interest to be proactive by alerting the city to failed

direct runoff toward the house.

walks or by repairing the sidewalks themselves.

Sidewalks are typically concrete, though they may

SIDEWALKS AND PATHS around the house

also be constructed from brick, stone, asphalt, or

should be inspected for the same defects. Paths fash-

precast blocks. Cracked, lifted, or uneven sections

ioned from precast blocks or stepping-stones tend to

represent a tripping hazard, so they should be

settle unevenly, so note path steps that are markedly

repaired. Interestingly, though sections of sidewalk

higher, lower, or tilting. In addition, check the slope of running between the front of a house and the street

sidewalks near the house. If they slope toward the house, curb are often on municipal land, homeowners are

they may direct rain runoff toward the foundation.

often responsible for their repair and upkeep. That is,

If there are other pathways around the property,

if someone trips on a faulty section and breaks a hip,

look out for sudden changes in elevation. Gradual

the homeowner can be sued.

rises are not generally a problem, but unexpected

Most cities and towns inspect sidewalks periodi-

single steps can send someone tumbling. Better to

cally, inform homeowners of defects, and offer to

remove that orphan step, regrade the soil, and replace

repair flawed sections for a nominal amount. It’s

the step with an evenly sloping walkway. Alternately,

usually a good deal, especially if tree roots have

paint an orphan step’s riser to make it more visible.

lifted the sidewalk, because the city also secures the

T H E WA L K- A RO U N D 23

NOTE : The single most important safety consid-

eration is that step risers (the vertical distance from

one tread to the next) be uniformly spaced. Uneven

step heights can cause a fall. Write up steps with

uneven rise or whose treads tilt—a trip hazard that is

compounded in regions with freezing temperatures.

Stairs that lead to porches or entry doors are dis-

cussed in Chapter 13.

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

■

■

Are any sections of sidewalk broken, tilted, or

otherwise a trip hazard?

■

■

Is vegetation overgrowing sidewalks, paths, or

sidewalk steps?

■

■

Do all paths and walks have trail lights?

Mortared brick walkways are difficult to repair in a way

■

■

Are steps leading up from the street evenly

that looks good. The raised edge creates a real trip

spaced and level?

hazard. The best long-term solution may be to install

■

■

Are any steps crumbling or cracked?

a new walkway made of a material that won’t crack as

it settles.

■

■

Are steps painted? In general, painted steps tend

to become slick when wet, except for sand-

impregnated paints, which offer greater traction.

■

■

If there are more than two steps, is there a sturdy

Wood steps or timbers that divide raised areas typi-

handrail?

cally rest on the earth, which makes them problem-

atic in at least two respects: Wood on soil is likely to

retain water and rot. And vegetation is likely to grow

Driveways

over them. Such vegetation obscures exactly where

Driveways are typically made of gravel, asphalt,

the wood step is, becomes slick when wet, and may

concrete, or paver blocks that allow rain to soak into

have roots that trip walkers.

the ground. (Occasionally you see brick driveways

NOTE : All sidewalks and paths on the property

but, on the whole, they are not very durable.) A rutted

should be lit by low-voltage trail lights. They are

or eroded gravel driveway can be repaired by grading

simple to install and solar-powered models won’t

it flat, adding new gravel, and rolling the gravel so

raise house electricity bills.

it seats well in the substrate. Asphalt drives can be

STEPS TO THE STREET AND DRIVEWAY

patch repaired or resurfaced, and uneven paver

are usually concrete; they typically match adjacent

blocks can be removed and resituated. Of all driveway

walks or paths. Make note of cracked or broken steps

materials, concrete is the most difficult to repair

because they are trip hazards. Whatever material

because it cures into a monolithic slab; faulty

was used, it should be in good repair and free of

sections can be repaired but patches will be obvious.

vegetation or any surface that could become slippery

Hairline surface cracks are generally not a problem,

when wet.

whereas wider cracks (1⁄2+ in.) with crumbling

If there are more than two steps, there must be a

materials and low spots suggest improper base

sturdy railing on at least one side. Tug on the railing

preparation. Crumbling edges are another indication

to test its solidness and inspect its base to be sure it is of a poorly constructed drive. If the edges of the drive

securely attached to the stair platform.

are eroding or low points have standing water, it’s

likely that drainage is subpar as well.

24 THE WALK-AROUND

problem getting up and down it in snowy or icy

conditions? Must one back out into traffic or is there

room to turn around in the drive? And how is

visibility at the end of the drive—could you safely

enter traffic?

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

■

■

Is the driveway surface intact or is it cracked

and crumbling?

■

■

Are driveway edges deteriorating?

■

■

Are there low spots or standing water in

the driveway?

■

■

If the driveway slopes downward toward the

garage or house, is there a channel drain to

intercept runoff? Is the channel drain clogged

If a garage door opening doesn’t look square, have an

or clear?

engineer review it. Because the driveway slopes into

■

■

If the driveway slopes toward the garage, are

the garage, a slot drain across the opening would be

garage floors wet or dry? Any evidence of water

better than the small square drain presently there.

stains from previous storms?

■

■

How steep is the driveway? In freezing weather,

would it be difficult to exit?

Driveways that drain down toward the house are

particularly problematic because of the potential for

Fences, Gates, and Trellises

flooding a garage or basement. A channel drain

Outdoor objects such as fences, gates, garden walls,

(trench drain) in front of a garage entrance can

and trellises are constructed with varying degrees of

intercept a substantial amount of runoff, but only if

skill. Some are simply constructed, modestly main-

it connects to a properly installed drainage system

tained, and rarely a serious concern for home buyers

that is rigorously maintained to prevent clogs. Such

or sellers; whereas others (particularly masonry

systems are expensive. Yet even the best of them

structures) are massive, dangerous when decrepit,

can be overwhelmed by a heavy downpour. A

and expensive to repair or replace. An inspector

driveway, like a roof, concentrates a prodigious

should note any outdoor structures that are in bad

amount of water.

repair and represent a safety hazard.

If the house is below the street, there should be a

Most fences and trellises are built out of wood,

slight ridge at the top of the driveway, running

which rots out eventually, even if it is pressure

parallel to the street, where the driveway meets the

treated. Typically, wood posts are sunk in the ground,

curb cutout. This ridge will direct runoff toward

with one-quarter to one-third of their length buried.

storm drains in the street, rather than down the

Gravel packed around the base of the posts will aid

driveway. Finally, an inspector should note how

drainage and longevity. A better way to support a post

functional a driveway is: How easy it would be to

is to bolt it to a metal post base in a poured concrete

enter and exit? A driveway should be at least 8 ft.

pier; also called a standoff, the metal base elevates

wide, with 10 ft. desirable if there is a walk along

the bottom of the post several inches above the

one side. Is there room to walk by a car sitting in

ground to avoid wood–soil contact. So post bottoms

the driveway? (Imagine your arms loaded with

are the crucial detail to inspect.

groceries.) How steep is the drive? Would it be a

T H E WA L K- A RO U N D 25

Landscaping

Carefully planned, planted, and maintained yards

lend charm, increase the value of a property, and help

control erosion. Green landscaping can also con-

serve water and provide shade, reduce home energy

consumption, and provide food and habitat for local

creatures.

As an inspector walks around a property, he or

she should note low spots that need filling, walks

or paths that present a trip hazard, structures that

are leaning or in bad repair, and keep an eye out for

signs of tunneling pests such as gophers or moles.

Made of freshly dug earth, tunnels are soft and easy

to collapse when you step on them. Local nurseries

or home centers can describe your options for getting

rid of such pests.

This trellis is heavily damaged and could cause serious

injury when it falls. It needs to be removed.

Note too if there are bushes, climbing vines, or

other vegetation in contact with the house foundation

or siding. Plants retain water, which leads to mossy

Vegetation is the other bugbear of outdoor struc-

siding and damp basement walls. Ivy is particularly a

tures because it retains moisture and hastens rot.

problem. Ivy’s tendrils can lift paint and siding, crush

Once an old wood fence gets completely overrun by

gutters and downspouts, and, if a main stem is large

berry bushes, the bushes may be all that are holding

up the fence. Most folks just enjoy the foliage, eat the

berries, and let the fence lean a little. Garden walls

built of brick or other masonry materials are theoreti-

cally a greater hazard if they lean but, again, if they’re not high, don’t lean much, or are greatly overgrown,

they’re probably not going anywhere.

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

■■ Is rot present where there is wood–soil contact?

■■ Was the wood used treated with preservatives?

(Preservatives can prolong wood life but some

have been banned, or their use proscribed, be-

cause they are extremely toxic.)

■■ Are the posts and superstructures of trellises

or arbors solid or do they sway to the touch? Is

bracing needed? Is there any rot at wood-to-

wood junctures?

■■ If there are brick, block, or stone structures in the

Seen up close, ivy doesn’t look charming. Here, ivy

yard, is the mortar intact? Are sections leaning or

tendrils have breached the topcoat of this stucco sid-

dislodged?

ing, allowing water to enter and do more damage.

26 THE WALK-AROUND

enough, create a gap where walls meet the under-

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

side of a roof. Ivy holds moisture, which can rot out

■

■

Is vegetation in contact with the foundation or

wood trim. It houses numerous insects and provides

siding? Is the siding mossy?

rodents, raccoons, and opossums with easy access to

■

■

Do lawn sprinklers spray onto the house?

eaves and the attic.

■

■

Are climbing vines attached to the house? Is

If homeowners are sentimental about keeping their

there damage to siding or trim?

ivy, they should at least cut it back periodically to

■

■

Do tree branches overhang the roof or touch any

limit the damage it does. Homeowners who like the

part of the house? Are there large leaning trees

that could lose branches or fall on the house in

look of wisteria, bougainvillea, and other flowering

a storm?

vines can limit the damage they do by supporting

■

■

Do tree branches come in contact with electrical

vines with a hinged trellis that can periodically be

service wires (see p. 123)?

pivoted away from the house (for painting, mainte-

nance, etc.) without killing the plant.

The inspector may also turn on any irrigation

system, especially lawn sprinklers, and note if water

is spraying directly onto siding. It’s easy to adjust

sprinkler trajectories. As an alternative to sprinklers,

drip-irrigation is inexpensive, easy to install, and

water conserving.

Finally, inspectors should note the health of trees

on the property, especially those close to the house.

A licensed arborist should take down dead trees or

limbs. If the inspection takes place after deciduous

trees have lost their leaves, branches without bark,

insect holes, and woodpecker drillings can help iden-

tify dead limbs or trees. Speaking of insects, dead

trees too close to a house may lead to an infestation

of wood-boring insects inside.

In general, branches that overhang a roof should be

cut back: at the least, they’ll clog gutters with leaves

and at the worst, they could fall, damage the roof,

and perhaps injure the people inside. In arid regions,

trees too near or touching a house are often a fire

code violation. (And, on occasion, a reason for insur-

ance companies to deny claims.)

Periodically, a licensed arborist should take down dead

trees or limbs. Large trees that lean toward buildings

should also be assessed and, as necessary, pruned as

needed or removed.

T H E WA L K- A RO U N D 27

POOLS AND POOL SAFETY

Approximately 4,200 children a year

Pool surfaces are hard and frequently slippery

are treated in hospital emergency rooms after being

when wet. Someone falling into an empty pool could

submerged in a pool or spa (hot tub). Each year, more

easily break bones. In addition to the points above, an

than 300 children under the age of 5 years drown.

inspection should note the following:

To reduce the number of such tragedies, in 2007, the

■

■

Are surfaces around a pool in good repair or could

Pool and Spa Safety Act (PSSA) became law. You can

loose tiles or crumbling masonry cause someone

read the law in its entirety and get other common-

to trip?

sense safety suggestions at www.poolsafely.gov.

Homeowners (and home inspectors) should famil-

■

■

Are surfaces around or in the pool slick with algae

iarize themselves with the publication Safety Barrier

or other vegetative growth?

Guidelines for Residential Pools, which is available at

■

■

If there is a pool cover, is it sufficiently sturdy (and

poolsafely.gov/wp-content/uploads/362.pdf.

attached) to break someone’s fall—that is, to keep

An inspection should note the presence (or ab-

them from hitting the bottom of the pool?

sence) of these safety features:

■

■

Is there standing water in the bottom of a pool or

spa? Mosquitoes can breed in as little as 1⁄2 in. of

■■ Every pool or spa should be completely surrounded

still water, so local vector control should be noti-

by a fence with a self-closing gate. Fences should

fied about derelict pools.

be at least 4 ft. high, though some states and mu-

nicipalities mandate a 5-ft. height. Fences should

Last, if pool surfaces have deteriorated and peri-

not have horizontal elements that a child could

meter walkways are cracked and uneven, the pool

climb up.

lining may have failed and in-ground leaks may have

■■ If the home serves as one side of the barrier,

compromised the soil around the pool. Depending on

every door leading to the pool or spa area should

the sources and extent of the failure, it may be more

have a loud door alarm that sounds for at least

cost-effective to fill in the pool than repair it. Have a 30 seconds.

pool professional make the call.

■■ Pool and spa covers must be in good working

order. Local authorities typically require that

such covers have locks or latches that a child

cannot open.

■■ Any pool or spa must have an anti-entrapment

safety drain cover. Drain entrapments typically oc-

cur when a swimmer’s body, hair, limbs, or clothing

becomes entangled in a faulty or flat drain or grate.

■■ Annually, a trained pool and spa professional

should evaluate water quality and inspect the phys-

ical condition of all pool and spa surfaces as well

as mechanical equipment such as pumps, electrical

devices, and safety equipment.

NOTE : Unused and empty pools and spas can also

be safety hazards.

This site is a serious hazard. The retaining wall

above the pool has failed and the masonry decking

around it is in poor condition. This pool may not be

repairable and should probably be removed or

replaced. It should be drained to prevent mosquitoes

from breeding, and a fence or barrier needs to be

installed to prevent access.

28 THE WALK-AROUND

chapter 2

exteriors

After you hAve wAlked the site, inspecting the house begins in earnest as you scrutinize its exterior. This is both a detailed look at exterior elements—siding, trim, windows, doors, eaves—and an overview of the house's

general health. Has the house been well maintained? Is

the siding in good shape overall? Are walls plumb? Are

window and door corners square? Do site concerns such

as, say, surface runoff recur as you look closer at the building? Are patterns starting to emerge in what you observe?

Keep looking and take notes.

e x t e r i o r s 29

Flashing Details

Cap

Water-

flashing

resistive

barrier

(WRB)

Head

casing

Rot at the top—

The visible elements of a house’s exterior—which

unless you flash it

include eaves, gutter systems, trim, siding, doors, and

windows—combine to protect the wall sheathing and

Upper sash

framing behind.

how walls shed water

The exterior walls of a house are multilayered

membranes that weatherproof a house in much the

Jamb

casing

same way that a roof does. In addition to protect-

ing underlying elements from damage by sun and

wind, the exterior intercepts water and keeps it away

from sheathing and wood framing. (We'll touch on

Caulk

masonry houses later on.)

gaps

to stop

The visible exterior layer consists primarily of sid-

leaks and

drafts.

ing and trim. Beneath the siding, ideally, is a water-

Lower

sash

resistive barrier (WRB), typically building paper or

plastic housewrap. (Houses more than 100 years old

Sill

usually don't have a WRB layer.) In addition, flash-

ing seals transitions from one material to another

and directs water around potential obstructions such

Standing water rots

as window and door trim, vent hoods, and outdoor

wood; keep it painted.

outlets. If it sticks out of a wall, it can dam up water.

Finally, caulks and sealants fill gaps, bond materials

together, or cut air infiltration.

During an inspection, you are limited to what you

building seams or gaps around doors or windows.

can see, obviously. For the most part you will not be

Water can also be drawn inward and upward by

able to see things such as felt building paper under

capillary action. For these reasons, builders cover

the siding. But it's important to understand how

exterior sheathing with a water-resistive barrier.

those hidden components work.

In older houses, the most common barrier is 15-lb.

No matter how well siding or trim is installed,

asphalt-impregnated building paper—also called felt

sooner or later water will work its way behind it.

paper—and in newer houses, semipermeable plastic

Typically, this happens when storms drive rain into

housewraps such as Tyvek® or R-Wrap®.

30 exteriors

A crucial detail: WRB and flashing must be

installed so that they divert water away from the

sheathing and the framing behind it. Because water

6 in. above graDe!

flows downhill, materials above should always over-

lap those below.

In new construction, water-resistive barriers are

No matter what type of siding is on

usually installed before windows and doors have

exterior walls, the bottom edge of siding should stop

a minimum 6 in. above grade (soil level) or 2 in. above

been inserted into rough openings. Windows and

hardscape such as a sidewalk or driveway. That clear

doors are then installed and their perimeters weather-

space minimizes splashback as rain hits the ground

proofed with flashing strips. As shown in "Flashing

and allows siding to dry. It also discourages insects

Details" on the facing page, the uppermost WRB

such as subterranean termites, which need access to

layer overlays cap flashing. Cap flashing, also called

moisture in the soil to build dirt tubes up the sur-

face of the foundation. It's important to keep siding

head flashing, redirects water that might otherwise

clear of vines and foliage, which retain moisture and

dam up behind door or window head casing, lead-

encourage wood rot and which insects can use as a

ing to stains and mold on interior surfaces, swollen

bridge over termite shields and the like.

sashes, peeling paint, and rot. All flashing is impor-

tant, but flashing the head of a window or door is the critical detail to get right.

An aside: In addition to keeping rain out, both

building paper and plastic housewrap must be per-

Painted and stained exteriors

meable enough to allow excessive moisture inside

Most types of siding and trim are painted or stained

the house to escape. Cooking, bathing, and shower-

to better resist the damaging effects of the sun's UV

ing put an extraordinary amount of water vapor into

rays and variations in temperature, to shed rain and

the air, which would become trapped in the walls if

snow, and to prolong the useful life of exterior mate-

it couldn't escape. Moldy drywall, soggy insulation,

rials. Although paint and stain colors are chosen pri-

and even rotted studs can result. Vent fans (p. 260)

marily for their aesthetic appeal, these thin layers are

also help expel moisture.

also a first line of defense against the elements. So

while faded or cracked paint may be only a cosmetic

issue, widespread paint failure sometimes telegraphs

more serious concerns.

A lot goes into a lasting paint job. (Hereafter, we'll

use paint as the generic term.)

The substrate (the surface being painted) must be

clean and dry, and carefully prepped beforehand. All

gaps must be caulked, nails set flush or nail holes

filled, and rough surfaces sanded and then wiped

clean again. (Note, however, that the lower edge of

window trim is often left uncaulked to provide an

escape route for any trapped water.) All exposed trim

edges must also be primed and painted. Any adverse

environmental conditions, such as excessive interior

Paint failures like this are usually the result of apply-

moisture, must also be corrected before the surface is

ing a nonpermeable paint over a damp wall or one that

excessive interior moisture was migrating through.

primed and painted.

e x t e r i o r s 31

learning about leaD paint

Lead-based paint adheres to almost any

such as door and window trim and siding. A Lead-

surface and weathers well, so it's not surprising that

Check kit contains 16 swabs and costs less than $50.

it can be found in 90% of houses built before 1940.

For more information about lead-related questions,

However, as lead's health hazards became known in

contact the National Lead Information Center at

the 1950s, paint manufacturers began to phase it

www.epa.gov/lead.

out. It was banned altogether in 1978 by the U.S.

government.

Because lead is a neurological toxin, it is par-

ticularly damaging to children aged 6 and younger,

who seem drawn to it because it's slightly sweet.

Breathing or eating it can cause mental retardation in

children. In people of all ages, lead can cause head-

aches, anemia, lethargy, kidney damage, high blood

pressure, and other ailments.

Because of its durability, lead paint was commonly

used on exteriors, on glossy kitchen and bathroom

walls, in closets (which rarely get repainted), and as

an enamel on interior doors, windows, stair treads,

and woodwork. So each time a swollen window or

sticking door was forced open, it ground lead paint

into flakes and dust. Roof leaks, drainage problems,

and inadequate ventilation added to the problem

Lead paint exists in 90% of houses built before 1940.

because excessive moisture causes paint to degrade

Lead paints were eventually banned by the federal

and detach sooner.

government in 1978.

If you have an older home, the presence of lead

may not be a dire problem if your home is well

maintained and old paint is well adhered. However,

lead becomes most dangerous when it becomes

airborne, especially during sanding or heat stripping,

for then it can be inhaled and easily absorbed into

the bloodstream. Therefore, if you are thinking about

renovating an old house, be methodical. Postpone

any demolition or paint removal until you test to see if

lead paint is present.

A number of kits that test for lead are available

at home centers. However, at this writing only one

satisfies U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

criteria for false positives and false negatives:

LeadCheck®.

Testing is pretty straightforward. Using a utility

knife, cut away a small amount of surface paint to get

at earlier layers underneath. Rub the test swab on the

exposed area: The brighter the swabbed area, the

Testing for lead paint. A small chunk of surface paint is greater the concentration of lead. Test several areas,

cut out to expose older paint layers, which are rubbed

with a test swab. The bright red reading indicates a

high level of lead.

32 exteriors

■

■

The application must be skilled. In addition to

If paint comes off in large pieces and there is

little pigment on the wood siding, chances are

careful prep, the painter must choose a paint that

that the wood was not primed properly.

is suited to the substrate, keep painting equipment

■

■

Do the painted surfaces of an older building have

(especially spray-painting rigs) in good working

a texture like alligator skin? There were too many

order, apply paint when both day and night tempera-

layers of paint on the building when a new coat

tures and humidity are optimal, and "follow the sun"

was added.

as painting proceeds so that the substrate is never

■

■

Widespread paint failure on all sides of a house

too hot.

that was painted within the last year or two is

likely caused by inadequate surface prep or low-

Maintenance must be ongoing. A quality paint

quality paint.

job can last for many years without repainting but

■

■

Are there widespread rust stains? Someone used

a homeowner must keep an eye on conditions that

common steel nails—not galvanized—to install

could shorten the life of a paint job. Shrubs and trees

the siding.

should be cut back; gaps that open up, caulked; sprin-

■

■

When you rub a painted surface, is there a chalky

kler systems calibrated so they don't spray the house;

residue on the palm of your hand? Relax, that's

and paint that gets damaged should be touched up.

normal weathering—aka chalking.

Stain should be reapplied every 3 years to 5 years so it

■

■

Are there gray stains and mildew on painted sur-

continues to repel water and resist weathering.

faces, especially on north and shady sides of the

house? For some reason, the siding is not drying

Wooden shingles and siding are often protected

completely after it rains and/or the paint used

by a stain instead of paint. Its primary purpose is to

did not contain a mildew inhibitor.

protect the wood from the sun's damaging rays, so

■

■

When stained wood surfaces fade to gray, either

the more pigment in the stain the better. The advan-

the stain used did not contain a UV-blocking

tage of staining is that it is easy to apply. Its down-

agent or the stain was not reapplied soon

side is that it gets thinner every year and needs to be

enough. In general, stains with more pigment will

fade more slowly.

reapplied more often than paint. Paint lasts longer

■

■

Is there both peeling paint and open gaps where

but requires more surface prep: scraping, sanding,

wood siding boards butt to trim or to each other?

and so on.

The boards absorbed moisture and swelled be-

fore they were installed and then shrunk as they

What to look For

dried. Or they were milled from green wood and

not sufficiently dried at the mill.

■■ Is there bubbling paint, especially on south or

west walls? Chances are, the paint was applied

when the siding was too hot (especially a prob-

wood siding

lem on south and west walls) or a second coat

Wood is easy to harvest, mill, and install, so it's no

was applied before the first was dry.

surprise that it comes in so many forms, includ-

■■ Are there large areas of peeling paint on the ex-

ing clapboards and lap siding, which are installed

terior wall(s) of a kitchen or bathroom? Excessive

horizontally; board-and-batten, which is installed

interior moisture is the most likely cause, along

with poor ventilation. Fortunately, the fix may be

vertically; shingles and shakes; plywood with various

as simple as adding a vent fan.

textures; and hardboard siding, usually a wood-fiber

■■ Do unheated garages and outbuildings experi-

composite mixed with resins to stabilize it. The

ence chronic paint failure? If so, the cause is most

downside of wood as a building material is that you

likely exterior. Perhaps the sheathing or siding

must fight its natural tendency (as a tree) to absorb

got rained on and was not dry when painted.

water, rot, and replenish the earth. To keep water

out, all surfaces of wood siding must be sealed with

e x t e r i o r s 33

so gaps most often occur where siding boards butt

together or where boards abut window, door, or

corner trim.

Gaps also open up where different siding materials

meet, such as wood siding and stucco, because differ-

ent materials expand and contract at different rates.

There again, it's important to keep gaps caulked

so water doesn't get behind and soak sheathing or

framing.

On heavily shaded sections of north-facing walls

it's common for mildew to grow on siding if there

is sufficient moisture present. On painted siding

mildew spores initially look like a black or brown

rash, which can spread till a whole wall is discolored

and dirty looking. As long as the paint is intact,

The large fungus growing at the bottom of this jamb

washing the siding with a household cleaner will

trim is a dramatic example of how unmaintained wood

will absorb moisture and decompose.

usually suffice to remove the mildew.

If the paint membrane is cracked or peeling,

however, mildew spores will feed on the wood sid-

paint or stain. When wood clapboards are installed,

ing (molds feed on organic matter) and discolor it.

for example, both faces and all edges must be primed

That black or brown streaking is the beginning of

and painted.

rot. Caught early enough, the siding can be scraped,

Because wood cells are designed to transport

sanded, primed, and repainted. The process is the

water up the trunk of a tree—from its roots to its

same for unpainted wood siding or for stained siding

crown—the end grain of boards is particular porous

whose stain has weathered so much that it no longer

and inclined to absorb water. So sealing the end

offers much protection. Here again, if the mildew

grain is especially important, as is caulking board

is caught early enough, the siding can be sanded

ends when gaps open up. As it dries, wood shrinks

and restained. Paints and stains are available with

in all dimensions, but especially along its length;

mildew inhibitors.

Redwood and cedar siding contain oils that resist

water and help the wood weather more slowly than

other woods, so they are frequently left natural

(unfinished). A combination of UV rays, wind, and

water turns cedar and redwood siding a uniform

nailing First class

gray, which traditionalists like the look of. As long as

the siding is intact, free from splits, cupping, and the

If grade A (or better) redwood or cedar

like, it will remain an effective exterior membrane.

clapboards are used and left unfinished, the expense of

Gaps that develop on natural siding are usually

such siding is worth the additional expense of stainless-

caulked with a clear caulk or with a caulk whose color

steel nails (four or five times the cost of galvanized).

The tannins in cedar and redwood can chemically react

closely matches the weathered wood hue.

with galvanization, which can cause staining.

one final detail: Siding should be attached with

galvanized, color-matched, or stainless-steel siding

nails. Uncoated steel nails will rust and streak down

34 exteriors

the face of the siding. On painted siding, rust can

bleed through the paint. Of all types, annular ring

shank nails hold the best and offer the greatest resis-

tance to pullout and cupping boards.

horizontal WooD siDing

Horizontal wood siding includes clapboards and lap

siding. Clapboards are a beveled wood siding milled

from redwood, red cedar, or spruce; for best results,

builders specify Grade A or better. Inferior grades are

likely to have knots or holes.

Lap siding is milled from 1-in.-thick stock to

resemble two courses of clapboard. Wider boards are

also somewhat more likely to cup. Horizontal wood

Wood clapboard siding is especially vulnerable where

siding is less likely to cup if it is nailed to stud cen-

it abuts window and door trim. If there are gaps along

ters, instead of being nailed only to sheathing. This is

the joint, water can soak clapboard ends, causing them

especially true of siding joints, where the end of one

to swell and split.

board butts against another.

What to look For

clapboarD Details

■

■

What is the general condition of the siding? Are

any boards rotted? Are knots visible? If so, are

knots bleeding through the paint—or missing? Is

paint adhering well?

1ϫ6 clapboards

Stud center

■

■

(actual width

Are clapboards or lap siding cracked and split-

1/4

5 in.)

ting? Is there any rot around cracks and splits?

6-in.-wide

building paper

■

■

Are there any signs of cupping? Are there nail

splines behind

pops? Do you see rusty nails?

joints

■

■

Have gaps opened up between board ends or

Nails barely

where boards abut exterior trim?

above top of

■

■

Are clapboard or lap siding ends lifting from

clapboard below

the sheathing?

4-in. exposure

■

■

Is siding discolored due to persistent moisture,

especially around the bottoms of walls? Is the bot-

tom course of siding at least 8 in. above grade?

Nails long enough

to penetrate

siding

WooD shingles anD shakes

Sheathing

No. 2 grade shingles and shakes, milled from cedar

or redwood, are fine for an exterior siding. (Shakes

Position clapboard joints over stud centers.

are thicker and split rather than sawn for a rougher

Position clapboard joints over stud centers.

For the most weathertight joints, bevel-cut ends.

For the most weathertight joints, bevel-cut ends.

look. We'll use shingles as the generic term for both.) Note: For clarity in this drawing, building paper

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Shingles should be knot-free and reasonably straight

between clapboards and sheathing isn’t shown.

grained.

e x t e r i o r s 35

What to look For

■

■

What is the general condition of the shingles?

Are any split, loose, or missing?

■

■

Are shingle joints correctly offset for three

courses? If not, are there signs of water damage

or wear between shingles?

■

■

Do shingles butt tightly to vertical trim pieces

or are there gaps? If there are gaps, are they

caulked to keep water out?

■

■

Are shingles cupping? How widespread is the

problem? Is building paper or sheathing visible

at any point?

■

■

Were shingles skillfully nailed or are nail heads

visible throughout the exterior? Are there any

signs of shingles splitting because of excessive

nailing?

These wood shingles on a south-facing wall are so

plyWooD anD harDboarD siDing

weathered that they are falling off. The lower courses

Plywood and hardboard siding are economical siding

are much grayer because of splashback from the shed

choices that, on the whole, are not as durable as the

roof below.

types described to this point. Both are engineered

products in which wood fibers are bonded with

Shingles are able to shed water because they

waterproof glues under heat and pressure.

overlap several courses. Thus the amount that each

Plywood PAnels have face plies that are tex-

course is exposed and the distance that shingle joints

tured or grooved to lend visual interest. Panels are

are offset (staggered) is crucial. Shingle joints must

4 ft. wide by 8 ft., 9 ft., or 10 ft. long; with thicknesses be offset 11⁄2 in. for three courses; in other words,

ranging from 3⁄8 in. to 5⁄8 in. They are installed verti-

shingle joints can line up only every fourth course.

cally to minimize the number of horizontal joints,

As with any siding, shingles must also fit tightly

because such joints are the most vulnerable to water

against trim. Some contractors will place a bead of

caulk on the underlayment behind the shingles as a

waterproofing measure.

In general, shingle nails should not be exposed;

they should be covered by overlapping shingles. An

excessive number of visible nails indicates an installa-

tion problem.

An inspection should also note any shingle defects

that could admit water, including cracks, splits, open

knots, cupping, and loose or missing shingles. Not

surprisingly, most defects will occur on south-facing

walls, where the sun is strongest and weathering is

accelerated.

Plywood siding was popular in many areas in the 1970s

and 1980s. Left unpainted, its surface veneer will wear

away to expose the interior plies.

36 exteriors

This hardboard siding has absorbed a substantial

Minor visible damage on the surface of hardboard

amount of water and swelled; the nails show the sid-

siding may conceal substantial interior wall damage.

ing’s original thickness. Siding this damaged should be

Sometimes the only way to know is to remove a few

replaced.

boards.

intrusion as it runs down exterior walls. Consequently

The central issue seems to be that hardboard sid-

panels' horizontal joints are shiplapped (upper panel

ing's wood fibers, compacted under great pressure,

edges overlap those below) or flashed with metal

"relax" and swell when moisture enters. Not painting Z-flashing. Inspectors should scrutinize panel edges

plank backs is a common cause of failure. Bottom

for splits, delamination, and rot.

edges are particularly susceptible to damage and rot.

The standard spacing for plywood siding nails is

Because wood fibers are oriented in a random man-

6 in. around the perimeter of each sheet and 10 in.

ner, planks expand along their length to a greater

in the field (center areas of the panel). Insufficient

degree than solid wood does, so buckling occurs.

nailing, a common defect, can allow plywood siding

Such exterior symptoms are often accompanied by

to buckle and pull away from the framing. Some

mildew and structural rot behind the siding.

wrongly assume that a single nail will secure two

sheets along the vertical edges. You should see

What to look For

two nails, one for each panel, 6 in. apart along the

■

■

Are plywood panel edges delaminating, especially

vertical seams.

along the bottom of a wall or at the horizontal

To save money, plywood panels are sometimes

joints where panels meet?

installed directly to studs (without sheathing) on

■

■

Was metal flashing used to weatherproof the

garages and other outbuildings. In these cases there

horizontal joints between panels? Or are the

joints shiplapped? Are there gaps between any

should be building paper or plastic housewrap be-

panels?

tween studs and siding to forestall rot.

■

■

Are plywood panels buckling or pulling away

hArdboArd siding is available in 4-ft.-wide

from the framing? Are panels adequately nailed,

panels and 9-in.- to 12-in.-wide planks. There are

especially around the edges?

wide variations in the longevity of such siding and an

■

■

Are the face plies of plywood paneling so weath-

ongoing controversy (since the 1990s) over whether

ered that you can see interior plies? (Such siding

product defects or faulty installation are the primary

is near the end of its useful life and needs to be

replaced.)

cause of hardboard siding failures on hundreds of

thousands of homes.

e x t e r i o r s 37

■■ Have plywood panels been installed directly to

studs, without benefit of sheathing in between?

stucco Details

If so, are wall studs diagonally braced to resist

shear forces?

Casing bead

■■ Is hardboard siding swelling around nail holes?

■■ Are hardboard plank edges, especially bottom

edges, swollen or deteriorating? Are there loose

or broken sections?

Lath (wire mesh

or expanded

■■ As you sight along hardboard edges, do they

metal)

appear wavy or are they straight? (Wavy lines

indicate planks that are buckling.)

Two layers Grade D

building paper

■■ Is there dark discoloration or fungus growing on

Solid sheathing

the siding?

stucco

Stucco consists of a cement-and-sand plaster applied

in several layers to a wire-lath base over wood-frame

Three-coat stucco

construction or to a masonry surface such as brick,

block, or structural tile. Stucco is usually applied in

three coats: (1) a base (or scratch) coat approximately

Weep screed allows

1⁄2 in. thick, scored horizontally to help the next coat

water to drip free.

adhere; (2) a brown coat about 3⁄4 in. thick; and (3) a

finish coat (called a dash coat by old-timers) 1⁄8 in. to 1⁄4 in. thick. For repair work and masonry-substrate

work, two-coat stucco is common.

Stucco is not waterproof. In fact, unpainted stucco

will absorb moisture and wick it to the sheathing

underneath. So before wire lath is attached, a water-

proof layer of building paper must be installed over

the sheathing. This waterproof layer is not always

present in older homes or, if present, the paper may

be fragile, so stucco repairs frequently involve replac-

ing at least some of the waterproofing membrane.

Relatively newer stucco homes (say, 1940s on)

have weep screed, a metal strip nailed to the base of

exterior walls. Weep screeds are an easy way to make

the bottom edge of stucco look crisp and clean. And

because the weight of the stucco flattens the screed

down against the top of a foundation, the screed cre-

Lacking a weep screed, the stucco wicked moisture

ates a positive seal against termites and other pests.

and cracked. The concrete sidewalk may have pulled

Stucco's tendency to retain moisture makes rot and

the stucco down and away from the concrete founda-

tion behind.

insect infestation particular problems. So the bottom

38 exteriors

edge of the weep screed also allows water penetrating

eiFs: synthetic stucco

the stucco to drip free.

The bottom of stucco walls should stop at least 6 in.

above grade or 2 in. above nearby paved surfaces. In

An exterior insulation and finish system

older buildings, however, the bottom of stucco often

(EIFS) is not stucco, but it looks like it. So it's usually extends below soil level and may conceal moisture or

referred to as "synthetic stucco." In a typical EIFS job, (1) rigid foam panels are installed over exterior wall

termite entry. So an inspector should gently probe the

sheathing, (2) a base coat is spread over the foam, in

base of old walls to see if the stucco is crumbling or

which (3) fiberglass mesh is bedded, and (4) a finish

sheathing is rotting and then—when inspecting the

coat is applied over the mesh.

basement or crawl space—look for corresponding

Whatever the theoretical merits of an EIFS exterior,

signs of water damage or infestation inside.

presumably good R-values, the system has been

plagued by widespread failures. Unlike real stucco,

from An insPection stAndPoint, stucco

which has a waterproof layer between the sheathing

condition can tell you a lot about a house. Stucco

and the stucco, EIFS has no such protection. So when

cracking, for example, is common and may be caused

water gets between the EIFS membrane and the

by movement in the wall framing, foundation set-

sheathing, it gets trapped there, soaking and eventu-

tling, seismic activity, or stucco shrinkage. Minor

ally rotting the sheathing and framing in as little as

2 years or 3 years.

cracks usually do not need repair and are normally

Water typically enters where the EIFS material

fixed when the stucco is painted. Cracks large enough

meets window or door frames, exterior trim, and

to allow water entry should be caulked or patched.

building joints such as corners, wall–roof junctures,

Diagonal cracks running out from the upper cor-

deck attachment points, wall penetrations for pipes,

and so on. Presumably, caulking cracks and gaps help

ners of windows or doors may telegraph big trouble.

keep water out, but there are simply too many places

Building loads often concentrate on a header—a load-

where EIFS fails for caulking to do any good.

bearing member over a door or window opening—

The EIFS industry eventually added drainage chan-

and diagonal cracking may be a sign that the header

nels that allowed trapped water to escape, but by

is not adequately supported. That is, the house's

then the technology's reputation was in tatters. To

learn the extent of moisture damage, an EIFS inspec-

framing or foundation may be shifting. A structural

tion specialist should be called in after the general

engineer should have a look and suggest a solution.

inspection is complete.

Old stucco that is bulging from the wall or detached

is another symptom that merits a closer look. It sug-

gests that stucco has separated from the lath or that

sustained dampness has rusted out lath nails. A pos-

sible suspect is water rising up through the founda-

tion. Where that is the cause, the base of the wall is

frequently crumbling as well. Rainwater penetration

at a failed window flashing is another common cause.

What to look For

■■ Is there widespread cracking? How wide are

the cracks?

■■ Do any of the cracks run diagonally from the

EIFS (synthetic stucco) features rigid foam

corner of a window or door?

panels over sheathing. The foam can be easily

damaged, exposing layers beneath to water

■■ Does the stucco move when you press on it with

damage.

the palm of your hand?

e x t e r i o r s 39

for their solidness and durability. However, because

masonry is extremely dense, it is poor at retaining

heat. Consequently, as energy conservation becomes

ever more important, fewer and fewer masonry

homes are being constructed. (Wood-frame homes

have significantly higher R-values.) So most of the

brick homes that an inspector is likely to encounter

will be older. Masonry-veneer homes—in which a

wood-frame house is faced with brick or stone—are

somewhat more common.

Another shortcoming of masonry is its rigidness.

In response to differential foundation settlement,

seasonal changes in temperature or ground satura-

tion, and seismic shifting, masonry walls crack.

Not all cracks are significant, though all should be

sealed to keep water out. Fine cracks in mortar joints

are common and usually cosmetic, though deeper

cracks, especially those that continue across several courses of bricks, should be inspected by a structural

engineer experienced with masonry buildings.

Door and window openings are particularly vulner-

able in masonry buildings. The perimeters of win-

Building loads often concentrate on a header—a load-

bearing member over a door or window opening—and

diagonal cracking may be a sign that the header is not

adequately supported.

■■ Is the bottom of the stucco 6 in. above grade or

does it run all the way to the ground? Is stucco

crumbling at the bottom?

■■ Does the stucco terminate at least 2 in. above a

concrete or paver surface?

■■ Are there gaps around windows or door trim or

where stucco meets a dissimilar material?

■■ Has the stucco been patched repeatedly? If so,

try to get a record of repairs. Patched sections

typically have slightly different textures than sur-

rounding areas.

masonry walls and veneers

Masonry walls—usually brick—provide both struc-

Window and door openings in brick-clad buildings

often use steel headers to support bricks above the

tural support and an exterior facade. Brick and stone

openings. Unpainted, the steel may rust over time,

houses are handsome and prized by traditionalists

causing it to expand and crack the adjacent brickwork.

40 exteriors

dows and doors are susceptible to air and moisture

infiltration. Gaps often open up because these units

expand at different rates from the masonry surround-

painteD brick

ing them. Gaps should be monitored and caulked as

needed.

The large openings required for doors and win-

Brick walls are sometimes painted

for purely aesthetic reasons, but more often the old

dows are also problematic in a structural sense:

brick and its mortar are in bad shape. If the paint is

Loads above must be transferred across openings,

peeling, it may be tempting to strip it, but the whole

typically by a steel lintel (header). Steel is strong, but facade will probably need repointing, which is quite

it expands at a different rate from masonry, which

expensive. It's far more cost-effective to power-wash

encourages cracking. And exposed steel headers rust

and repaint the walls. By the way, older brick build-

ings should never be sandblasted: it's too destructive.

and often expand, causing cracks to occur in the

adjacent brickwork. The steel headers in these areas

should be painted with a rust-inhibiting coating and

monitored periodically for any future rust damage.

So inspectors must pay close attention to the perim-

brick-veneer Walls

eters of windows and doors in masonry walls.

Brick-veneer walls are freestanding (they stand on

Deep cracks running from corners can indicate

a portion of the foundation) but employ galvanized

structural problems, including different settling and

ties to attach them to the wood-frame walls behind.

foundation failure. These cracks may run diagonally

Brick-veneer walls work well enough as long as (1) the

across bricks or may step-crack along mortar joints.

ties don't rust out, (2) water doesn't leak down behind

Where cracking sections are also bowing or bulging

the brick facade, (3) the brick wall has weep holes

outward, the masonry wall may be close to failure;

at the base that allow moisture to escape, (4) there

have a masonry specialist assess their soundness.

is sufficient clearance (at least 8 in.) between the

The condition of the mortar is often telling. Some

bottom of the brick and the ground to keep moisture

erosion is to be expected, but any erosion deeper

from wicking upward, and (5) the brick is rated for

than 1 in. below the surface of the facade should be

exterior use.

considered serious. Likewise, missing mortar should

There are other details to get right, but you get the

be replaced to keep water out. Mortar that crumbles

idea: It's a complicated way to construct an exterior

when scraped by a screwdriver or pocketknife is

wall, with much opportunity for moisture to get

also in poor shape; it should be scraped out and new

behind the facade, soak the sheathing, and cause a

mortar added and repointed—shaped and compacted

lot of mischief.

with a pointing tool.

Accordingly, inspectors should scrutinize mortar

Efflorescence, a powdery white substance on the

joints and bricks for cracks, splits, and loose materi-

surface of masonry walls and foundations, is common

als, giving special attention to the top of the veneer

where sustained moisture has leached salts through

wall(s), where brick meets siding or wood sheathing.

brick or concrete. Over time, the concrete or masonry

All gaps must be caulked. Here again, door and win-

will deteriorate as the salt crystals form deeper;

dow frames are especially vulnerable because they

surfaces can be wire-brushed clean and sealed. But

can shrink back from the masonry and leave gaps

persistent damp can cause a host of other problems,

that water can leak into. Note also any large cracks

from mold to rot, and should be addressed.

in veneer bricks.

e x t e r i o r s 41

Brick-veneer siding often separates from the wall

In moist, shady areas, mold will grow on aluminum sid-

behind it after galvanized ties rust out. The gap can be

ing. This is primarily a cosmetic condition that can be

caulked to prevent water entry and framing decay, but

scrubbed off periodically.

the veneer should eventually be removed.

What to look For

Aluminum and vinyl siding

Aluminum siding was among the first nonwood

■■ Do masonry walls run all the way to the ground?

sidings, touted as a no-maintenance alternative to

■■ Are there signs of moisture wicking up into the

painted wood siding. It does require some main-

masonry? Use a moisture meter (p. 14) to determine the ambient moisture of the bottom of

tenance, notably washing it periodically to remove

the wall.

grime. Aluminum siding's enamel paint is quite du-

■■ Is cracking widespread? Are cracks shallow or

rable because it is applied and baked on at the factory.

deep? Do cracks follow mortar joints or do the

Though metal siding does not respond to changes in

cracks run across bricks as well?

humidity, as wood siding does, it does contract and

■■ Do any cracks run diagonally from the corners of

expand with temperature shifts. Thus metal siding

door or window frames?

will need to be repainted every 10 years or so.

■■ Are door or window frames reinforced by a steel

Aluminum, a lightweight metal, flexes, scratches,

lintel at the top? Is the lintel rusted? Is there

and dents. To prevent corrosion, scratches that ex-

cracking in the bricks around the lintel?

■■

pose bare metal should be touched up with a compat-

Have gaps opened up around window or door

frames? Are those gaps caulked?

ible paint. Dents are usually left alone unless they

■■ Do any wall sections bulge?

compromise the exterior's weathertightness. How-

■■ Are mortar joints crumbling or eroded? How

ever, loose and missing sections should be replaced

deeply are they eroded?

and open joints must be closed.

■■ Are there bricks or sections of mortar missing?

Butt joints (where siding planks butt together)

■■ Is there efflorescence on the bottom of masonry

should be covered by H-molding; there are also end

walls? Are walls often damp?

caps and specialty pieces to resolve corners and siding-

■■ Is there a gap between the top of a low brick-

trim joints. Such accessories are colored matched

veneer and the wall behind? Is it caulked to

to the planks. If an inexpert installation resulted in

prevent water entry?

widespread gaps around door and window trim, have

■■ Are veneer walls plumb or do their tops lean

an aluminum siding specialist do repairs. (Siding

away from the building?

manufacturers generally recommend against caulking 42 exteriors

gaps because it is a temporary fix that can limit the

What to look For

metal's ability to expand and contract.)

■

■

Does the siding gap where it joins trim, turns

The knock on standard aluminum siding is that

corners, or butts other siding boards? (Especially

its R-value is low and it does almost nothing to cut

note where siding planks butt to window and

air leaks. In response, siding makers now offer an

door trim.)

■

■

insulated aluminum siding which, when installed

Are there dented or missing sections of siding

that need replacing?

with a plastic housewrap, cuts air infiltration and

■

■

Is the aluminum siding insulated?

helps older houses retain conditioned air. The insula-

■

■

If siding is discolored, will washing remove the

tion, usually a rigid foam, isn't very thick (3⁄8 in.)

stains or is it time to repaint?

but it helps. As always, there are tradeoffs, with the

■

■

If local codes require that aluminum siding be

downside being moisture retention behind the insu-

electrically grounded, are connections to the

lation. (Rap on the siding with a knuckle to see if it's

siding and to the grounding device mechanically

insulated; uninsulated siding rings hollow.)

solid?

A code quirk: Check with local building code au-

thorities to see if aluminum siding must be grounded

vinyl siDing

to prevent shocks. If that's the case, a ground wire

From a distance, vinyl siding looks like alumi-

should be bonded to the siding, with the ground wire

num siding—it has end caps and H-molding, for

attaching to a ground rod or an approved water-pipe

example—but it has a slightly oily texture and its

clamp. The code will specify how the grounding is to

color is infused throughout the plastic. It is typically

be done; to be effective, the metal siding has to be in

installed with a rigid foam insulation backer board

continuous contact and the grounding device must be

that lends rigidness and boosts R-value. Also like

connected to bare metal, not painted metal.

aluminum siding, the critical points of a vinyl siding

Aluminum siding can be low maintenance, but a sharp

Vinyl siding panels should clip together at the

impact from, say, a car bumper, can crush the soft

horizontal joints. If not installed correctly, the panels metal. This damaged siding and corner trim should be

may buckle, causing joints to open. Siding should be

replaced.

checked periodically.

e x t e r i o r s 43

installation are at corners, where boards butt each

other, and where siding abuts window and door trim.

Look for gaps at those points.

Vinyl expands and contracts more than alumi-

num, so it's particularly important that installers get

the nailing right. When it is incorrectly nailed, the

material can't move freely and so buckles and looks

wavy. In moderate temperatures vinyl stays flexible,

but it becomes brittle in extreme cold. Consequently,

though it rarely dents, it can crack or shatter if it's

struck when very cold. Inspectors should note such

damage.

Asbestos-cement shingles are durable and can last

What to look For

many years if undamaged. Asbestos siding is not con-

sidered friable and will not easily enter the air. Only an

■■ Are there gaps at building joints where siding

experienced asbestos abatement contractor should

boards meet trim?

dispose of it.

■■ Do any sections of the vinyl siding look wavy or

bulge out?

■■ Are any siding boards missing, split, cracked,

that siding nails are rusting through, and it's prob-

or loose?

ably time to remove the cement-asbestos shingles and

replace them with a more up-to-date material. Only

cement-based siding

a qualified asbestos abatement contractor should

Cementitious siding is tough but relatively brittle,

remove or dispose of such shingles, to minimize (and

durable but inclined to crack or break if it gets a

contain) the hazardous dust that will be created.

hard knock. Consequently, cement-based siding is

Inspectors should note cracked, loose, broken, or

typically reinforced with fibrous materials to make

missing shingles.

it more flexible.

Fiber-cement siDing

asbestos-cement shingles

Fiber-cement (FC) siding is asbestos-free, consist-

Asbestos is well established as a carcinogen when

ing of reinforcing fibers, sand, and portland cement.

its dust or fibers become airborne. But asbestos in a

Available in a wide range of sizes and textures, FC

rigid form such as asbestos-cement siding is not con-

products now include trim boards, clapboard siding,

sidered to be particularly hazardous by many special-

and panels manufactured to simulate wood-shingle

ists. This type of siding is no longer manufactured,

courses. HardiePlank® lap siding and HardieShingle®

but because it is durable, rot- and insect-resistant,

are two popular brands.

stable, and fireproof, it can still be found on many

Fiber-cement siding paints like a dream, is im-

older homes.

pervious to insects and rot, and won't burn. Once

If struck by a hard object, asbestos-cement shingles

installed, it is stable, durable, and virtually main-

can crack or shatter. So nailing asbestos shingles can

tenance free. The trick is handling and installing it

be tricky. Because these shingles are no longer made,

without damaging it. Unlike wood clapboards, which

it's common to see replacement shingles that don't

are lightweight and springy, fiber-cement siding is

match the color or texture of others on the wall.

heavy, short-fibered, and brittle. Carried incorrectly,

Large numbers of loose or missing shingles suggest

it can flex too much and crack across its face. Siding

44 exteriors

nails driven too deep will crack it, and errant ham-

repaired to prevent rot damage or insect infestation.

mer blows can chip or break it. Inspectors should

In protected areas where repair is not practical, how-

note damaged or missing sections.

ever, a lesser clearance is acceptable, as long as the

trim shows no sign of damage.

exterior trim

WooD trim choices

Exterior trim includes fascia, soffit, and frieze trim

Traditionally, exterior trim has been milled from

along a building's eaves; rake trim along its gable

solid, rot-resistant woods such as redwood, cedar,

ends; corner boards; window and door molding and

or hard pine—sufficiently dry to avoid shrinkage,

sills; and water-table trim that runs around the base

cupping, and checking. For those reasons, builders

of a building, below the siding. Exterior trim's basic

generally avoided softer, less stable species such as

function is to cover critical building joints, keeping

sugar pine, knotty pine, hemlock, and fir.

water out and reducing air infiltration.

As mature, old-growth timber became scarce, the

Exterior trim is installed in many different ways,

industry began fabricating finger-jointed trim stock

depending on the design of the house and the type of

from shorter lengths of high-grade wood. It also

siding. For wood shingles or clapboards, trim boards

fashioned hardboard, fiberboard, and wood-fiber

are typically thicker than the siding and nailed to

composites from wood chips that were steamed,

the sheathing before the siding is installed. On older

pressed, and glued. Today, such engineered wood

houses with shiplap or board-and-batten sidings,

products are widely used as trim. Though more

trim boards are frequently installed over the siding at

dimensionally stable than solid wood, they still have

corners, around windows and doors, and so on.

wood's tendency to absorb water, to swell, and in

As is true with siding, there should be at least 6 in.

time, to rot.

of clearance between the bottom of trim boards and

When inspecting exterior trim, start by getting an

the ground below and 2 in. above masonry walks or

overall impression of the wood quality. Knotholes,

driveways. Ideally, siding or trim that makes contact

knots bleeding through, splits, and widespread cup-

with the ground or a concrete sidewalk should be

ping suggest an inferior grade of wood was used.

(Cupping may also be caused by not priming the back

faces of trim boards.) Painted trim that is peeling

needs to be repainted. Gaps between trim boards

should be caulked; boards may also need to be re-

nailed (or screwed).

priming anD painting

Primer must be applied to all faces and edges of

exterior wood (and engineered wood) siding, and

trim, including the back faces. Although an inspector

cannot, of course, see if siding is back primed, wood

that is not back primed will cup (edges will curl up)

when the sun dries out the exposed front face if the

back retains moisture. The greater the moisture

Wood trim and siding should stop 6 in. above soil and

differential between front and back faces, the more

2 in. above walking surfaces. It should never be em-

likely the cupping. Equally important, as trim boards

bedded into concrete because it will absorb moisture.

The faulty detail shown here is common around garage

are cut and fitted to the exterior, cut edges must be

door openings.

e x t e r i o r s 45

siding system is incorrectly installed. Fiber-cement

siding also has companion trim pieces, milled in

thicknesses from 7⁄16 in. to 1 in. Last, cellular PVC

plastic is a rapidly growing category of exterior trim.

In some respects, PVC trim is easier to work than

wood, but it tends to expand and contract along its

length, so when joining long boards, carpenters must

bevel-cut ends so they overlap. Otherwise, PVC trim

will buckle as it expands.

attaching trim securely

As a rule, exterior trim should be nailed to framing.

In those rare instances where installers have only

All edges and board ends must be painted to seal out

sheathing to nail to, they must angle the nail so that

moisture, unlike this example where the underside of

the trim was left unpainted. Inspectors should look at

it will be less likely to pull out. If you see trim boards as many of these surfaces as possible to be sure all are

lifting, they were likely nailed only to sheathing. As

properly painted.

is true with siding, trim should not be attached with

uncoated, non-stainless-steel nails: They will rust

spot-painted to seal out moisture. End grain is

and stain the exterior.

especially thirsty. If you see swelling around nail

holes, chances are you're looking at hardboard trim:

What to look For

If nails are driven too deep, they may compromise its

■

■

Do any trim boards make contact with the

waterproof surface and admit moisture.

ground or with a concrete sidewalk? Is the bot-

tom of the trim rotting?

other trim choices

■

■

Are corner trim and siding discolored and de-

As noted earlier, aluminum and vinyl siding have

graded at the corners of the house? Look for a

matching trim pieces made of the same material.

missing or leaking downspout.

Metal and vinyl trim pieces are durable and expand

■

■

Are there gaps between trim board edges? Open

only slightly, so gapping is a problem only if the

joints should be caulked and edges should be

drawn together with screws or nails driven in at

an angle.

■

■

Are there gaps where siding butts to siding?

Gaps should be caulked with an elastomeric

caulk that will accommodate the expansion and

contraction of siding boards.

keeping FireWooD

■

■

All trim faces and edges must be painted to seal

at a Distance

out moisture. Do you see any bare wood? (Use

a mirror to look under the bottoms of corner

boards.)

Firewood should be stored well away

■

■

Are trim boards cupping? Most likely, the back

from a house for fire safety and to prevent infestation

faces of boards were not primed.

by termites or other wood-destroying insects that are

■

■

often present in firewood. Also, areas obscured by

Are nail pops common? Trim boards were prob-

firewood cannot be accessed and inspected.

ably nailed to sheathing, not to framing.

■

■

Can you see widespread rust stains?

46 exteriors

■■ Are trim boards at the eaves badly deteriorated

Drip eDge Flashing

or detaching from rafter ends? The cause is prob-

The single most important detail to get right at these

ably a roof leak or missing drip edges (discussed

critical horizontal roof–wall junctures is installing

at right).

metal drip edge flashing. Drip edge is discussed at

■■ Is the trim at eaves and roof excessively weath-

length in the next chapter (see p. 65), but here we'll ered or splitting? If it is on south- or west-facing

note that it is a metal edge that projects along roof

walls, you're seeing water and sun damage. The

trim should be replaced.

edges and causes water to drip free of eaves trim.

■■ Do vinyl, PVC, or aluminum trim boards buckle?

(Drip edge is installed under roofing and over the

Individual boards may have been butt joined too

sheathing or fascia, so the flashing also covers and

tightly to allow for expansion.

protects sheathing edges from gutter splashback and

■■ Do trim boards swell or crack around nail holes?

ice dams.) Otherwise, water would travel, by capillary

Moisture has entered hardboard trim because it

action, behind the exterior trim and siding.

was incorrectly nailed.

As you inspect eaves trim, try to see if proper flash-

ing protects all roof edges. (Along gable edges, look

inspecting the eaves

for rake edge flashings.) Drip edge doesn't stick out

Eaves are the area where roof framing meets or over-

much so you may need binoculars to see the farthest

hangs exterior walls. The eaves get a lot of weather,

reaches. In addition, look for signs of water damage

so carefully inspect trim at the eaves and rakes (slop-

such as splitting, lifting, or rotting trim boards. Also

ing boards along gable ends).

note gaps between trim where individual board ends

Three more terms: Exterior soffits are the enclosed meet. Ideally, board ends should be beveled so there's

areas under eaves or other horizontal projections.

not an open seam due to shrinkage, but that doesn't

Fascia is a flat board fastened along the eave ends of always happen.

roof rafters. Frieze is a traditional trim board between Look also for leaking or poorly attached gutters

the top of the siding and the soffit. These three types

(more on p. 73) and stains or water damage on trim of trim are not always present.

or siding behind them. Also note the condition of

painted trim. Badly peeling paint may be an indica-

tion that trim boards are retaining moisture. In the

Snow Belt, trim is often badly weathered or loosened

by ice dams (p. 67). Such trim should be routinely checked, reattached if necessary, and repainted at the

end of each winter.

Scrutinize the tops of exterior walls: If water is

getting behind trim and siding, you may see peeling

paint, discoloration, and lifting boards. If rafter tails or roof beams are exposed, look for rot. It is important that the upper surfaces of such exposed framing

be kept painted to prevent water damage. (Upper

surfaces are typically not visible from the ground, so

examine them when you inspect the roof.) Exposed

rafter or beam ends are often covered with sheet-

A gap behind this rain gutter allowed water to flow

metal caps to prevent water damage.

over the rafter tails and eaves boards and rot them in

If the house has enclosed soffits, they will often

several places. Chances are, the roof’s drip edge was

installed incorrectly or not at all.

contain ventilation ports or slots to allow air to cir-

e x t e r i o r s 47

culate under the roof, thus reducing excess heat and

moisture. The edges of vent ports and slots should

be kept painted to resist rot and covered with screen

to keep insects and animals out of the attic. If there

are vent screens, however, they should not be painted

over, which would block the flow of air.

What to look For

■■ Are all roof edges protected with metal drip edge

flashing?

■■ What is the general condition of eaves and rake

edge trim? Are any trim boards lifting, split, or cup-

ping? Are board joints tight or are there gaps?

■■ Are gutters in good condition or are they rusty and

leaking? Behind damaged or rusting gutters, is trim

discolored or rotting?

Windowsills get a lot of splashback and standing

■■ Is painted trim in good condition or is peeling

water, so sills and the lower corners of wooden

widespread?

window sashes are vulnerable to rot. Commonly, sash

■■ Are overhead service drops well anchored to

rails and stiles will split.

the house or are porcelain insulators pulling trim

boards away from the house?

■■ Are exposed rafter tails or roof beams sealed with

windows and doors

paint? Or are they peeling or bare wood? Are rot-

Windows and doors have to put up with a lot: ex-

ted ends visible?

tremes of hot and cold, UV damage from the sun,

■■ Are soffits ventilated? Are soffit vents covered with

water soaking and swelling their frames and sashes,

screen? Are screens painted over?

■■

and all manner of abuse from people trying to force

At the tops of exterior walls, is there peeling paint,

water damage, missing siding, or signs of rot?

them open when they are swollen or painted shut.

When you inspect the exterior, get an overview of the

windows' and doors' condition. When you go inside,

you can check to see if they are operating correctly,

as explained in Chapter 11.

baD connections

WinDoW types

In your inspection report, note (1) what types of

Overhead electrical service cables—

windows are present; (2) what materials window

also called a service drop—must be securely anchored

to a house. Ideally, drops should run to a weatherhead

frames and sashes are made of, if apparent; and

(p. 125) atop a length of rigid conduit. On many older (3) their overall condition. When you go inside, you'll

houses, however, service cables run to a porcelain

also wanted to note if windows are single, double,

insulator screwed into eaves trim. If an insulator screw

or triple panes. Here's a quick summary of window

attaches only to trim, in time the weight and tension types and materials.

of the cables will pull the trim board away from the

house. This is dangerous and should be corrected by

Double-hung windows are by far the most com-

the utility company or a licensed electrician.

mon in older construction; both upper and lower

sashes slide up and down to admit fresh air. Single-

hung windows have a fixed upper sash; the lower

48 exteriors

sash slides. Casement windows are side hinged and

swing outward, usually operated by a crank. Awning

windows are hinged at the top, the bottom swings

Flashing WiDoWs anD Doors

outward. Hopper windows, which tilt from the bot-

tom, are like upside-down awning windows. Tilt-and-

To rain running down a building

turn windows are hybrids that tilt like a casement or

exterior, door and window trim must look like the

bottom tilt like a hopper. Horizontal slider windows

Hoover Dam, especially the head casing that runs

are like miniature patio doors; sashes slide in tracks.

across the top. When this film of water encounters

Jalousie windows are typically a series of pivoting

obstacles in its path, it will flow into gaps between

the head casing and the sheathing or into gaps along

glass louvers (slats) in a metal frame. Fixed windows

the sides of a window or door. Unless, that is, such

don't open.

gaps are correctly flashed—particularly with head

flashing—to direct water outward and keep it running

WinDoW Frame anD sash materials

harmlessly down the siding till it drips free.

Window materials are trade-offs of durability,

insulating level, maintenance, and of course, cost.

Color may also be a consideration because not all

materials can be painted. Wood windows require

the most maintenance because they can absorb

moisture, swell, and in time rot if paint is not

maintained. Clad wood windows, on the other hand,

require less maintenance, can be painted, and are the

most expensive type listed here. Metal windows

(aluminum or steel) have poor insulating levels, are

cold to the touch in winter, and are prone to conden-

sation; more expensive models come with thermal

barriers. Vinyl windows are economically priced and

are rated fair in durability, maintenance, and R-value;

color selection is limited. Solid fiberglass window

The cap flashing, correctly installed over this header

frames and sashes are ranked good in all characteris-

trim, will keep runoff from getting behind the trim.

Now if only the painter had painted the end of the trim!

tics and are almost as expensive as clad wood; they

are paintable.

When inspecting windows, pay close attention to

the corners of sashes where horizontal rails meet

vertical stiles. They should fit tightly, without gaps.

What to look For

Note how sashes fit into frames. Both frames and

■

■

What window types are present? Based on your

sashes should be square and so should the window

observations and the type of siding used, what

casing (trim) around them. Scrutinize the perimeter

do windows appear to be made of? (Your inspec-

of window casings, where siding butts against them.

tion inside will give you a closer look.)

■

■

There should be no gaps where water could enter or

What is the general condition of windows? Do

any have peeling or missing paint? Do any appear

if there are, they should be well caulked. Finally, note

to be painted shut? Do window frames appear to

the presence or absence of flashings where needed,

be square?

especially head flashings above windows.

■

■

Are any frames or sashes badly weathered or

cracking? Are sash corners tight or gapping?

e x t e r i o r s 49

■■ Are there gaps between siding and window cas-

house. There are also sleek pivot doors that turn on

ing (trim)? If there are gaps, are they caulked or

a single shaft within the door spine, but they tend to

could water enter?

be architect-specified, custom-made, and very pricey.

■■ Do all windows have head flashing? (Use binocu-

Doors may also be classified according to whether

lars to examine upper-story windows.)

they are stile-and-rail, a traditional design whose

■■ Are any glass panes cracked or missing? Is win-

panels float within a solid-wood frame; or flush, a

dow putty cracked or missing?

more modern look whose flat faces are laminated to

■■ What is the overall condition of windowsills and

a solid core that is augmented to improve its thermal

bottom sash rails? Are any badly weathered,

cracked, or rotted?

efficiency. In general, exterior doors with glass lites

■■ Are metal windows corroded or rusted?

tend to have a lower cumulative R-value than those

■■ If the house is in a cold region, are there storm

without glass.

windows? If the inspection takes place dur-

ing warm months and storm sashes have been

Door materials

removed, ask the homeowner where they are

Apart from the glass that makes up most of a sliding

stored and examine them.

door, the principal materials used for exterior doors

are wood, steel, and fiberglass. As with windows,

exterior Door types

door materials are a trade-off of durability, mainte-

The drill for exterior doors is the same as that for

nance, price, and energy efficiency.

inspecting windows: Start with an overview of the

fiberglAss doors offer the best bang for the

doors' condition. If you see missing flashing and

buck overall, with R-values of 8 or higher. They

badly weathered sills outside, when you go inside,

are typically fiberglass skins applied over a wood-

look for corresponding water damage, drafts, and

composite, laminated veneer lumber (LVL), or steel

so on, as explained in Chapter 11.

frame; the core is filled with foam insulation.

Most exterior doors are hinged, though sliding

Fiberglass expands and contracts at the same rate as

doors are common where a deck or a patio adjoins the

glass, so glazing seals are especially stable. Such

doors require the least maintenance.

wood doors are the traditional favorite, but

they are the least durable and require the most

maintenance; if they don't get it, wood doors will

absorb moisture, swell, and in time rot. Protected by

an overhang or a porch, they'll weather more slowly.

Their energy profile is so-so. On average they have an

R-2 value, although more efficient ones achieve R-5.

steel doors are economical but unexciting.

They are also durable, easy to maintain, and, when

filled with foam, almost as energy-efficient as fiber-

glass. (Cold goes right through them, when uninsu-

lated.) Steel doors need repainting every 3 years to

5 years, otherwise they will rust. Once the steel skin

starts to rust, it can go fast. Steel-framed windows

This metal sweep protects the bottom of the door and

and doors were common in the 1940s, and many

keeps driving rains out. However, the wood sill is worn

homeowners want to preserve them to maintain the

and needs to be refinished and rot is visible where

jamb trim meets the sill.

home's original architectural style.

50 exteriors

WeatherprooFing Details

Because doors are relatively large areas with low

all-Weather

R-values, it's important to reduce air infiltration and

Doorsill system

energy loss as much as possible. From an inspection

Door

point of view, weatherproofing doors is not an expen-

Metal door

sive item, but it's a good indicator of the general level bottom

of care given to the house.

weAther striPPing can be sophisticated,

with compressible stripping that slides into kerfs

(slots) between the door and the doorstop as well

as flexible sweeps or shoes that seat securely to

Vinyl

Drip edge

sill/threshold units. Open and shut each exterior door

sweep

Threshold

to see how tightly it fits into its frame; it should open and close easily, but with a slight resistance as the

stripping compresses.

doorsills get a lot of abuse from rain, snow,

grit, and foot traffic. Examine them closely to see if

Weep hole

they are badly worn, cracked, or rotted. Step on them

Drain pan

to see if they move; if so, the framing underneath

may be damaged. In areas with driving rains, an all-

weather doorsill system will reduce drafts and resist

water seeping or blowing in under the door.

Storm doors reduce air infiltration and retain heat.

Sill cover

Most houses have metal or wood frames with remov-

able storm and screen panels. Check the condition of

Sill

doors, particularly noting the corners. Lightweight

metal storm doors tend to separate at the corners as

Door jamb

they near the end of their useful life.

What to look For

■■ What type and material is each exterior door?

■■ Are exterior doors protected by overhangs or

porches?

■■ Are door frames and casing square? Wracked

frames with diagonal cracks at the corners may

of water damage? How high above the stoop or

indicate structural problems.

deck is the doorsill?

■■

■

■

Do exterior doors open and shut easily or do they

Are the bottoms of any doors damaged or

stick? Is there weather stripping? Are there gaps

delaminating? Is there peeling paint? In snow

between the door and the frame?

country, could snow pile up against the base of

■■

the door?

Does siding butt tightly against the door casing

■

■

or are there gaps? Are gaps caulked?

Are metal doors rusting or dented?

■■

■

■

What is the condition of the doorsill? Is its sur-

Do all exterior doors exposed to the weather

face abraded, split, or rotted? Are there signs

have storm doors?

e x t e r i o r s 51

CHAPTER 3

ROOFS

A ROOF IS A BUILDING’S MOST IMPORTANT LAYER

of defense against water, wind, and sun. Properly con-

structed and maintained, a roof system will deflect rain

and snowmelt and route water away from the building.

Properly insulated and ventilated, the roof system will

also moderate moisture and temperature in the living

spaces below, ultimately leading to a house that’s more

healthful, comfortable, and energy efficient.

52 ROOFS

Roofing Basics

Reduced to its simplest elements, a roof system con-

sists of (1) wood framing, typically an array of rafters

or ceiling joists; (2) roof sheathing (or decking), usu-

ally plywood or oriented-strand board (OSB) panels

or boards nailed to framing; and (3) roofing materials

that cover the sheathing.

WATER SHEDDING OR WATERPROOF

There are two basic roof types: steep slope and low

slope. Steep-slope roofing sheds water and needs a

downward slope of at least 4 in 12. Slopes down to

2 in 12 are allowed if special double underlayments

(water-resistant sheet materials under the roof-

ing) are used. Lower slope, or low-slope, roofing is

designed to be relatively waterproof. All low-slope

roofs, including so-called flat roofs, should be

Know your limits. Many home inspectors won’t get onto

designed to slope to drain properly. Minor standing

a roof. If you go topside, do so only in dry weather and

water is permitted on low-slope roofing as long as it

stay alert.

dries within 48 hours.

Historically, roofs were sloped to shed water,

as most still are. Sloped-roof materials tradition-

FLASHING AND DRAINAGE

ally included clay tile, wood shingles and shakes,

Today’s roofs have protruding vent pipes, chimneys,

metal, and slate. Although all of these materials are

skylights, and dormers—all potential dams that need

still used, composition shingles, commonly called

to be flashed (see p. 64) to direct water around them.

asphalt shingles, are by far the most common type.

As runoff approaches the lower reaches of the roof,

Used with felt paper underlayment, these roofing ma-

it must be directed away from the building by means

terials will shed water but, it must be noted, they are

of overhangs, drip edges, gutters, downspouts, and

not waterproof. Rather, they allow water to flow over other drainage elements (see p. 73).

them, unimpeded, down and away from the building.

If roofing is incorrectly installed or becomes worn,

Steep-Slope Roofs

water can get underneath it.

Steep-slope roofing must shed water, so your inspec-

Flat roofs have quite a bit of history too, and hot

tion should focus on how well it’s doing that. From

asphalt (also known as bitumen) was applied to roofs

the ground, sight along the roof ridge to see if it’s

in the Middle East as early as the fifth century B.C.E.

straight. If the ridge sags in the middle, suspect too

Flat is something of a misnomer: Every roof should many layers of roofing or undersize rafters. Older

slope somewhat so water doesn’t pond up. Roofing

houses in regions with temperate climates were often

materials for flat and low-slope roofs include built-up

framed with 2×4s, sometimes 24 in. on-center. Over

roofing, single-ply membranes, roll roofing, and

time, such rafters may sag, especially under several

spray polyurethane foams (SPFs) that both insulate

layers of roofing. If the sagging has stabilized, no

and waterproof.

repairs may be needed, however.

53

SAFELY INSPECTING ROOFS

Inspecting a roof can be dangerous.

4. When on a roof, try to walk directly over rafters, The higher the roof and steeper its pitch (and the

to which the sheathing is nailed. Roofs tend to be

more difficult it is to access), the greater the danger.

less springy over rafters, and you’ll be less likely to

Consequently, some authorities suggest that you

break through rotted sheathing on an old or poorly

inspect a roof solely from the ground, using binocu-

maintained house.

lars as you walk around the house. Indeed, if the roof

5. Be thorough and stay alert: Walk around as much of is very steep or roofed with a slippery material such

the roof perimeter as is safe to do. And always walk

as slate, tile, or metal, it’s probably a good idea to

forward as you inspect—never backward.

survey it from the ground.

In most regions, inspectors routinely get up onto

the roof for a closer look, especially on single-family

houses built in the last half-century. In drier regions,

many houses of this vintage have low-slope (a pitch

of 4-in-12 or less) or flat roofs, good access, and

asphalt shingles that offer soft-soled shoes a decent

grip. If you do go up, play it safe:

1. Make sure there’s a second person within earshot in case you fall or need help. (Having a real estate

agent on site during an inspection can be helpful.)

2. Don’t venture up when the roof is wet or near freezing or extremely warm. When wet, most roofing

materials are slippery. Cold asphalt shingles are

brittle; warm asphalt can stretch and tear. Always

wear shoes with soft nonslip soles.

3. Ladder safety is essential. Position ladder feet securely away from the building. Ideally, the top

of the ladder should stick up at least 2 ft. or 3 ft.

Going topside enables you to examine the roof and

above the roof surface. Whether ascending or

its ancillary structures closely. Be thorough, but stay

descending, always face the ladder.

alert. Move forward as you scan the roof perimeter.

And minimize multitasking: Record your observations

when you’re back on the ground.

Note any rooftop sagging on your report and

be replaced during reroofing. Isolated low spots are

later, when you inspect the attic, look for cracked

more likely caused by rot or, where skip sheathing

rafters and signs of active leaks, which may indicate

(see p. 58) was used beneath an old shingle roof, distressed framing that needs structural reinforce-individual boards have failed.

ment (such as adding braces or purlins beneath the

A roof surface that is wavy and uneven probably

rafters) or, possibly, requires roof stripping and rafter has too many layers of roofing—anything more than

replacement. (It’s almost always best to wait until

two layers is too many. It will need to be stripped

reroofing to do any framing reinforcements.)

when a new roof is installed.

If the roof sags and its low areas run parallel to

When scanning a roof, you can also get a quick

rafters, the sheathing may be too thin and needs to

read on how well it’s been maintained. Do trees

54 ROOFS

SUN DAMAGE

Shingles on south-facing roof slopes

tend to wear out first. The prolonged heat of the sun

causes such shingles to expand and contract more

than those on other exposures and that extra dose of

UV rays degrades them faster. (South-facing siding

also weathers first.) The felt paper underlayment

under those shingles also ages more quickly, becoming

brittle and less water resistant. Conversely, shingles

on north-facing roofs get less sun, so in wet climates

they may grow mossy, especially if shaded by

This roof surface is very lumpy, probably due to too

overhanging trees.

many layers. The roof-to-wall flashings are not visible

and are therefore suspect.

overhang the roof or branches touch it? Branches can

have a self-seal strip that melts and adheres to the

abrade roofing and leaves can clog gutters and down-

shingles above to prevent uplift.

spouts. Are shingles mossy? Are there widespread

Shingle weight and dimensions vary; the most

patches of roofing cement? Chances are, each tried

commonly installed are 12 in. by 36 in. Common

to stop a leak. Note where these conditions occur,

three-tab shingles weigh about 200 lb. per square.

then look for leak stains when you go inside. If you’re

Shingle weight is a rough indicator of longevity:

diligent, you’ll start to see patterns.

standard 200-lb. shingles last 15 years to 20 years,

depending on maintenance and sun exposure.

COMPOSITION OR ASPHALT SHINGLES

Architectural-grade laminated shingles can last

Asphalt shingles are fabricated by infusing a fiber-

30 years to 35 years, and some 450-lb. luxury shingles

glass/felt mat (base) with asphalt to resist water and

come with 50-year warranties.

then coating the weather face of the shingle with

mineral granules. The granules deflect sunlight and

its damaging UV rays, helping prolong the life of the

mat. Consequently, granule loss is a key indicator of

a shingle roof’s age and condition.

The three-tab shingle, shown in “Shingle Lingo”

on p. 56, is the most common type. Slots cut into the exposed part of the shingle add visual interest and allow heat expansion. But slots tend to erode and shed

granules faster than the body of the shingle. Thus

correct installation is critical. To minimize leaks,

The lines of black glue spots are self-seal strips. Cor-

installers use only four nails per full-width shingle,

rectly installed beneath a row of shingles above, the

and those nails must be covered by the shingle course

adhesive melts and secures the shingle tabs above.

Here, an inept roofer badly overexposed two rows so

above. The bottom 5 in. of each shingle course is left

the seal strips aren’t even covered. This job should be

exposed to the weather; most shingles today also

redone.

RO O F S 55

SHINGLE LINGO

These definitions will help you make

sense of roofing terms.

■

■

Course: a horizontal row of shingles.

■

■

Butt edge: the bottom edge of a shingle.

■

■

Exposure: typically, the bottom 5 in. of the shingle, left exposed to weather. Shingles with metric dimensions are usually exposed 55⁄8 in.

■

■

Cutouts: slots cut into the exposed part of a three-tab shingle, to add visual interest and allow heat

expansion.

■

■

Offset: the distance that shingle slots or ends are staggered from course to course.

■

■

Self-seal strip: the adhesive on the shingle face

Composition shingles with ragged edges and pitted

that, when heated by the sun, fuses to shingles

surfaces, cracked cap shingles along the ridge, and a

above and prevents uplift.

roof vent slathered with roofing cement to stop leaks

are all clear signs that it’s time to reroof.

■

■

Fastener line: on shingles with a 5-in. exposure,

a line roughly 55⁄8 in. up from the butt edge. Nails

along this line will be covered by the shingles

above. (If shingles don’t have such lines marked,

nail just below the self-seal strip.)

COMMON ASPHALT SHINGLE FAILINGS

■

■

Control lines: chalklines snapped onto under-

Asphalt shingles are quite durable but occasionally

layment to help align courses and cutout lines.

they fail prematurely. Look for the following signs

■

■

Underlayment: a water-resistive sheet material—

of failure.

usually building paper—that covers the roof

WIDESPREAD CUPPING, eroded edges, curling,

sheathing.

and loss of granular surfaces—and gutters filled

with granules—suggest that it’s time for a new roof.

Estimating how many years an asphalt shingle roof

THREE-TAB SHINGLES

has left is an inexact science, so as a rule of thumb,

reroof when a third of an asphalt shingle roof looks

Offset

Tab

Self-seal strip

worn out.

ROOFING CEMENT PATCHES suggest a home-

owner who has found leaks and is trying to buy a few

more years by patching obvious cracks. Aside from

looking shabby, this approach may lead to sustained

water damage.

Exposure

LUMPY, UNEVEN ROOFING probably has three

or more layers of shingles that will need to be

removed before reroofing. Sometimes you can count

Butt edge

Cutouts

Fastener line

roofing layers along the rakes, where the shingle

(not found on all shingles)

edges are visible.

ODD-COLORED SHINGLES here and there are

probably patches over old leaks. However, if the roof

is relatively new and shingles are worn in only one

56 ROOFS

The best place to count shingle layers is along roof

These asphalt shingles are worn out and will soon

edges. As you count, keep in mind that roofers often

need replacement. The darker shingles have prema-

double shingles along the edges to stiffen the over-

turely aged because of a poor factory coating. The

hang. In most locales, you must now strip the roof

shingles’ protective mineral granules have worn off,

before reroofing if there are two or more layers on it.

exposing the bituminous base beneath.

Note the popped roofing nail: It can’t even reach the

sheathing.

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

area, perhaps one or more bundles of shingles were

defective.

■

■

Has the roof been well maintained? Are gutters

WIDESPREAD WEAR AND CUPPING on a

free of leaves? Are shingles mossy?

■

■

relatively new roof (5 years to 10 years old) suggests

Does the roof have any appreciable sagging?

Is the ridge straight?

a product defect. The shingles should be stripped

■

■

before reroofing.

Are there widespread patches of roofing cement?

■

■

MANY MISSING OR LOOSE SHINGLES indi-

Is there widespread shingle cupping, eroded

edges, curling, or loss of granular surfaces?

cate that shingle nailing was improper, possibly

■

■

If the roofing surface is wavy and lumpy, there

because the installer’s power nailer was set too deep

may be too many layers of shingles on the roof.

and drove the roofing nails through the shingles.

If roof edges are visible, try to count the layers.

Have a licensed roofing contractor survey the roof—

■

■

If there are odd-colored shingles, are they iso-

it may need to be stripped and replaced. A few

lated (patches) or widespread (defective)?

shingles missing on an otherwise sound roof may

■

■

If there are a lot of missing or loose shingles,

have been caused by wind damage.

suspect faulty power nailing.

MOSSY SHINGLES are common to north-facing

■

■

Is widespread wear visible although the roof

roof slopes and sections overhung by trees. The best

shingles are relatively new?

fix is prevention: Cutting back branches and periodi-

cally clearing debris off the roof will help.

WOOD SHINGLES AND SHAKES

ERODED GRANULES alongside roof dormers and

Wood shingles and shakes are milled from water-

below dormer downspouts have been washed away by

resistant woods such as red or white cedar or cypress.

concentrated runoff. Extending dormer downspouts

Wood shingles are sawn; shakes are split and tend to

so they empty directly into main gutters is one fix.

be somewhat thicker and more irregular. Only No. 1

Roof drainage is discussed further on p. 73.

(blue label) shingles should be used on roofs because

RO O F S 57

GOOD HOLES IN THE ROOF

Wood shingles and shakes need air

circulation to dry out and keep from rotting. This includes air flowing underneath too. To enable air flow, shinglers traditionally installed skip sheathing over rafters—1-in.

boards with spaces in between—rather than solid sheath-

ing. Shingles or shakes were then nailed to the skip

sheathing. If you stand beneath such a shingle roof you’ll sometimes see diffuse sunlight filter through it indirectly.

Don’t panic, it does not mean that the roof will leak. Offset shingle joints ensure that water will flow down the roof

without entering any joints. If, however, you can see sunlight when standing directly beneath a joint and looking

Debris trapped behind chimneys and other obstruc-

straight up, the shingler may have failed to offset joints.

tions will collect leaves that restrict water flow. Install V-shaped sheet metal flashing or a cricket above such

obstructions. Periodic cleaning of such areas is also

advised.

they are free of sapwood and knots. (Lesser grades are

Breather® is one brand) between the building paper

fine for siding but may leak on a roof.)

and the shingles. The mesh has enough loft to allow

Wood shingles are manufactured in lengths of

air circulation. Periodically clearing debris will also

16 in., 18 in., and 24 in., for recommended exposures

help prolong the life of wood roofs, because debris

of 5 in., 51⁄2 in., and 71⁄2 in., respectively, on roofs

holds moisture.

with a 4-in-12 pitch. Ultimately, roof pitch determines

COMMON WOOD-ROOF FAILURES

exposure: Greater shingle exposure is possible on

Wood shingles and shakes are more susceptible to

steeper roofs because they shed water faster.

natural forces—especially water, sunlight, and tem-

Wood shingle and shake roofs can last 30 years or

perature shifts—than asphalt ones.

more if they are correctly installed. There should be

1

MOSSY SHINGLES on a north-facing roof slope

⁄4-in. space between shingles or shakes to allow for

are common, especially if it’s shady. Moss retains

expansion when they become wet. Because joints are

water, which degrades wood in time. Moreover, if

vulnerable, they should be offset at least 11⁄2 in. from

moss builds up, it will raise shingle butt ends, which

joints in the course above; joints should line up no

driving rains can get under. Wire-brushing or

more than every fourth course.

hand-scraping will remove moss. To keep moss off,

Even rot-resistant wood will rot eventually if it

staple a length of 10-gauge or 12-gauge bare copper

stays moist for too long; wood roofing needs to dry

wire to a course of shingle butts all the way across

periodically. Consequently, wood shingles were tradi-

the roof. Run one wire along the ridge and another

tionally installed over skip sheathing, widely spaced

about halfway down. During rains, a dilute copper

1-in. boards that allow air to circulate under shingles

solution will wash down the shingles, which acts

and dry them.

as a fungicide. It’s a nice alternative to toxic chemical Today, most sheathing is plywood panel, so wood

treatments.

roofs require a 1⁄4-in.-thick synthetic mesh (Cedar

58 ROOFS

This wood shake roof is completely worn out, and

Sliding new wood shingles below gaps in old shake or

should not be walked on. The wood roofing should be

shingle roofing is a good short-term repair technique.

removed; and solid decking, plywood, or OSB, should

This roof will need to be removed and replaced soon.

be applied before reroofing.

DAMAGED OR DECAYED SHINGLES along rake

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

edges or eaves have usually absorbed water for too

■

■

Are shingles (or shakes) around the roof perim-

long. Replacing individual shingles is not difficult,

eter rotted?

but it’s often best to simply slide new wood shingles

■

■

Are most of the shingles on the roof cupping,

over the old damaged ones and tap them into place

splitting, or rotted? It’s time to reroof.

because it requires no shingle removal or nailing.

■

■

A new roof with shingles that are cupping or

AN OLD ROOF (30 years or more) with cupping,

splitting was probably not installed correctly.

■

■

splitting, and missing shingles has come to the end

Do a lot of the roof shingles have holes? If there

are leaks in the attic, suspect those holes.

of its life. Strip and replace the shingles.

■

■

A RELATIVELY NEW ROOF (10 years or less) with

If the house is in a local fire zone, a wood shingle

roof is probably not allowed.

cupping, splitting, and rotted shingles was probably

installed directly over solid sheathing, trapping

SLATE, SYNTHETIC SLATE, AND

moisture on the underside of the shingles or shakes.

CLAY TILES

It needs to be stripped. If the sheathing is in decent

Slate and tile are relatively brittle, expensive, and

shape, consider reroofing with asphalt shingles.

easily damaged if you don’t know what you’re doing.

MANY SHINGLES WITH HOLES are most likely

And they’re slippery when wet. In most cases it’s best

caused by the installer using an inferior grade of

to hire a roofer experienced with these materials to

shingles intended for walls. If you see water stains on

make repairs.

the underside of the sheathing, the roof is leaking.

Tile and slate are so durable that they often outlast

Strip the shingles and reroof.

underlayment (roofing felt) and the fasteners used to

WOOD SHINGLES IN HOT, DRY AREAS may

secure them. Consequently, if the roof condition war-

violate local fire codes; check local codes to see what

rants removing all slates or tiles, installing new ply-

roofing materials are approved. When it’s time to

wood sheathing and reinstalling them, don’t scrimp

reroof, you may need to install a Class A, fire-rated

on replacement materials. Use heavy underlayment

roofing material.

RO O F S 59

This clay tile roof has seen repairs—note the irregular

The aftermath of a falling tree limb. Several of these

courses—but it’s still leak free. Any damaged tiles that

tiles are broken and others are missing. The felt under-

can’t be reached from a roof edge should be replaced

layment should be checked for damage and repaired

by a pro. There’s an art to getting onto a tile roof with-or replaced as needed. New or reused tiles can then be

out causing more damage.

installed to complete the repair.

(30-lb. building paper or a self-adhering bituminous

LOOSE TILES AND RUST STAINS are usually

membrane), copper attachers, and copper flashing.

caused by steel nails that are rusting away. (Copper

nails are recommended for slate and tile roofs.) If

COMMON SLATE AND TILE FAILINGS

the roofing is in decent shape, it can be removed and

Slate and tiles are relatively fragile. Synthetic versions renailed, but that repair will be expensive. Reroofing

of slate and tile are less expensive than the originals

with an alternate material would probably be more

but are still prone to chipping and cracking.

cost-effective.

CHIPPED OR ROUND EDGES and flaking sur-

RUST STAINS ON SLATE ROOFS are typically

faces on slate are common and rarely a problem. In

caused by original drip edge flashing that has worn

regions with hard winters, however, excessive flaking

out. If there’s no evidence of leaking, live with it. Other-and splitting may be caused by freeze–thaw cycles

wise, replace flashing when reroofing.

when moisture has been trapped, such as in a leaf-

CONCRETE ROOF TILES were frequently in-

filled valley or in debris behind a chimney.

stalled without felt underlayment in the 1970s and

CLUSTERS OF BROKEN TILES or cracked slates

1980s. This is no longer approved because of the

along roof edges have probably been damaged by

greater potential for leaks. Leave tiles alone if the

falling branches. If you can reach the damage without

roof isn’t leaking; otherwise, remove all tiles, install

walking on the roof, replacing a few tiles or slates is

plywood sheathing, cover the sheathing with felt

not difficult. But for damage that is extensive or far

paper, and then reinstall the tiles.

back from the edges, have a professional make repairs.

VALLEYS SLATHERED WITH ROOFING

SLATE THAT SPLITS along surface striations is

CEMENT have likely been leaking. Such patches will probably ribbon slate, an inferior grade with softer

soon dry, crack, and leak again. The roof should be

material running through it. Such failure occurs

looked at by a licensed roofing contractor before the

when the slate roof is relatively new, say, 15 years or

next rainy season.

less. Strip the roof and start over.

60 ROOFS

The metal apron flashing on the downslope side of

These outdated synthetic (fiber cement) shakes break

this brick chimney is missing and the mortar is crum-

easily when walked on. This type of shake is no longer

bling and should be repointed. The slate is in pretty

manufactured and is not considered repairable.

good shape, however.

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

■■ Is the roof well maintained? Is flashing intact and

are gutters free of leaves?

■■ Although rounded or chipped edges are common

on slate, excessive flaking is a problem, especially

in regions with freezing temperatures.

■■ Do tree limbs overhang the roof? Clusters of

broken slates or tiles were probably caused by

falling limbs.

■■ Are there rust stains or loose tiles or slates? Steel

nails may have rusted through.

■■ Are valleys debris free? If the valleys are open

(visible), is the flashing in good condition? If roof-

ing cement is slathered in the valleys, they may

The standing seams of modern metal roofing panels

be leaking.

are self-flashing; they cover the exposed edges of

adjacent panels. Washered bolts keep water from get-

ting under the bolt heads.

METAL ROOFS

Metal shingles and panels are increasingly popular

because they are cost-effective, durable, and relatively

Never get up on a metal roof to inspect it: it’s too maintenance free. They shed water well. Older metal

slippery, even in dry weather. Using binoculars, scan

roofs will typically be bare galvanized steel; surface

metal roofs for popped nails, lifted panels or shin-

rust is not a concern unless the roof leaks. Newer

gles, and tight panel joints. Shingles or panels should

metal roofing has a galvanized steel core clad with

always overlap those below. Look also for evidence

a factory-painted enamel. In time, painted metal

of galvanic action, corrosion caused by combining

roofing will fade or chalk, but it’s cosmetic. Not a

dissimilar metals.

concern.

RO O F S 61

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

right, especially flashing that membrane to vertical

elements such as parapets, skylights, and vent pipes.

■■ Can you see popped nails or lifted roof panels?

Drainage is also essential to roof health, as is regular

■■ Is there any evidence of galvanic action on the

maintenance.

metal roofing?

BUILT-UP ROOFS

Flat Roofs

Built-up roofs (BURs) once represented half of all flat

First of all, no roof should be completely flat or it

roof coverings. BURs consist of three to five alternat-

won’t shed water. Even flat roofs must slope slightly

ing layers of heavy roofing felt and hot asphalt. Small-

toward perimeter openings and interior drains. Flat

dimension gravel was embedded in the top layer to

roofs can be safely inspected by walking on them.

reflect sunlight and decrease UV damage. Today,

When inspecting a flat roof, use a tape measure to

modified bitumin (MB) is the king of the BURs; they

pinpoint badly worn or damaged areas, so that when

have torched-on cap membranes that fuse them to

you continue your inspection inside, you can correlate

fiberglass-reinforced interplies, or base coats.

rooftop damage to leaks you may find.

Speaking of which, inspectors must be sleuths to

SINGLE-PLY COVERINGS

match interior water stains to roof leaks. Water is

Single-ply coverings include membranes of EPDM

very opportunistic and follows a path of least resis-

rubber, PVC or TPO plastic, and modified bitumin.

tance. It may, for example, run some distance along

Methods of attachment and seam sealing tend to be

a rafter before it finally drips free onto the back of a

propriety for each system. Some feature cold-sealed

drywall panel. Flat roof leaks are somewhat easier to

joints in which a chemical bond fuses sheets to-

trace, but on steeply sloped roofs . . . good luck.

gether. Some membranes are adhered directly to the

Flat roof materials must be waterproof. In addi-

roof deck, and others are laid loose and held in place

tion to correctly installing an impervious membrane,

by the weight of gravel. Others employ a combina-

the roofer must also take pains to get the details

tion of chemical adhesives and mechanical fasteners.

Although a general home inspection can identify

suspect areas, if the roof is in poor shape a roofing

installer specialized in single-ply systems should

assess the roof.

SPRAY-POLYURETHANE FOAMS

Spray-polyurethane foams (SPFs) are relatively new,

but gaining popularity in Sun Belt states, particularly

as retrofits on mid-century houses with flat roofs.

SPFs’ appeal is that they can be applied over an exist-

ing flat roof, once it has been adequately prepared,

which saves the considerable mess and expense of

stripping the old roof. The foam is also an excellent

way to upgrade the roof’s insulation, without losing

headroom inside. Once dried, the foam is strong

enough to walk on and, when sprayed with a top

Because water can pond up on so-called flat roofs,

coating that protects against UV degradation, an SPF

their seams must be tight. Seams along the eaves are

especially prone to lift, so inspect them closely.

roof is quite durable.

62 ROOFS

ROLL ROOFING

Roll roofing is not very waterproof and so it’s not

advisable for use as a primary membrane. Nonethe-

less, it’s economical, easily installed, and widely used

on porch and shed roofs.

COMMON FLAT ROOF FAILINGS

To avoid failure, the hot mop coating between the

layers of felt on a flat roof must be complete. Any

voids will contain some air with moisture that will

expand, creating blisters. In time, the blister is likely to split.

IF BLISTERING IS WIDESPREAD, the roof will

need to be replaced; whereas isolated, individual

blisters can be lanced, drained, and patched easily

Gravel-surfaced built-up roofing (tar and gravel)

enough. Avoid stepping on blisters, which could drive

requires a covering of gravel for solar protection.

water under the membrane and soak framing or fin-

About 50% of the gravel should be embedded in the

ish surfaces below.

final layer of hot asphalt. If the asphalt cools too soon, good embedment doesn’t happen and some of the

OLDER BUR SURFACES that are cracked, wrin-

gravel washes away. Recoat such areas and add gravel

kled, alligatored or that have exposed felt paper are

as needed.

showing UV damage. The oil in the surface coats

has likely evaporated. Depending on the age of the

roof and the extent of the damage, worn areas should

be coated with aluminized asphalt emulsion every

2 years or 3 years or reroofed. If repairs look piece-

YOUR PLACE IN THE SUN

meal or there are just too many, the whole roof

should be recoated.

Repeatedly walking on a flat roof

BARE PLACES ON A GRAVEL-TOPPED ROOF

will abrade its membrane. If inhabitants want to use

are probably not serious: the gravel has migrated

the roof for al fresco dining and sunning themselves, because of water movement or foot traffic. If the

a rooftop deck should be installed, secured to rafters

(through the sheathing) so it cannot move, with its

membrane is intact, uncovered areas can be spot-

supporting posts correctly flashed so the roof mem-

coated with fresh asphalt emulsion or roofing cement

brane is not compromised.

and recovered with gravel.

CRITICAL JUNCTURES between a roof’s steep-

and low-sloping portions should be carefully exam-

ined. Flat roof membranes should run at least 10 in.

up the sloping section. The top edge of that mem-

WATER PONDING is caused by clogged drains,

brane should then be overlapped by the underlayment

drains that are too small, or insufficient slope toward

of the sloping section and its roofing materials so

drains. The rule of thumb is that minor stand-

that water can run downhill unimpeded. Because of

ing water is OK as long as it dries within 48 hours.

the high volume of water coming off a sloping area,

Drains should be checked periodically and cleared as

the juncture is vulnerable to leaks if not properly

needed; of course, areas below should be monitored

detailed.

for leaks.

RO O F S 63

Drains that are too small clog easily. This drain was

Single-ply plastic PVC membrane is typically quite du-

cut through spray polyurethane foam (SPF) roofing.

rable and waterproof. The single drain in the parapet

It should be made larger and additional scuppers (pe-

wall is probably large enough. The slope nearby is a

rimeter drain openings) should be added by a qualified

bit shallow, which has caused some minor ponding. In

roofer.

general, minor standing water is OK if it dries within

48 hours.

SINGLE-PLY ROOFS ARE VULNERABLE at

parapets, skylights, and other vertical elements.

Examine those joints to make sure the membrane is

continuous—that is, that there are no gaps. If me-

chanical fasteners are present, check for stretching

and wear at attachment points.

FOAM SHRINKAGE. On SPF roofs, look for gaps

around vertical elements such as chimneys, skylight

curbs, and vent pipes; they may be signs of foam

shrinkage. Foam that has been properly sealed with a

UV-resistant acrylic coating should not shrink.

DAMAGED FOAM. If you see damage by a tree

Roll roofing is not very durable even when correctly

limb, filler foam and a top coating may need to be

installed, and this low-slope roof was not done well.

reapplied. A certified roofing foam specialist should

Exposed rusty nails along the edges have popped up,

inviting leaks, and the gutter was poorly secured. The

inspect an SPF roof.

roof should be replaced.

ROLL ROOFING SEAMS and joints where they

abut walls are the most likely to leak, so make sure

they are tight. Raised nail heads are also problematic.

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

If there’s any question, a dab of urethane caulk or

■

■

If the flat roof shows widespread blistering, it

roofing cement should be put under nail heads before

probably needs to be replaced.

they are driven down; likewise, roofing cement

■

■

An older BUR roof that is cracked, wrinkled, or

should be spread along suspect joints. If the roll roof-

alligatored or has exposed felt paper is showing

ing’s surface is cracking or its granules are worn off,

UV damage. If it can’t be recoated, it should be

replaced.

it should be replaced.

■

■

Where sloping and flat roof sections meet, are

flat roof membranes overlapped?

64 ROOFS

Open valleys clear water well. The standing seam

The edge of this roof sheathing is not protected by

(crimp) down the middle of metal valley flashing

a metal drip edge, which would direct water into the

prevents cross-valley runoff from running under the

gutter. Consequently, the sheathing has absorbed

shingles on the other roof plane.

water over the years and is delaminating. To avoid

clogs, keep gutters clear.

■■ Does water pond up on the roof? Are roof drains

the eaves. The crimped edge of drip edge flashing

clear?

also resists bending and thus supports overhanging

■■ Check single-ply roof membranes for gaps at

shingles.

parapets, skylights, and stacks.

In new construction, drip edge along the eaves is

■■ On SPF roofs, gaps around vertical elements

nailed directly to sheathing and then overlapped by

such as chimneys, skylight curbs, and vent pipes

building-paper underlayment, which also covers the

may be signs of foam shrinkage.

roofing nails that secure the drip edge to the sheath-

■■ Are roll roof seams and joints tight? Are any nails

ing. Along gable ends, rake edge flashing is installed.

popped up? If roll roof surfaces are cracking or

worn, they should be replaced.

If the shingle ends along the eaves are deteriorat-

ing and the eaves and rake trim are splitting, chances

are that flashing was not installed correctly or at all.

Roof Flashings

If possible, lift the shingle edges to see if roof sheath-If roofs were only sloping planes, making them

ing is delaminating or damaged. This soaking may

weathertight would be relatively easy. But today’s

also be caused by clogged gutters (see p. 73). When roofs have protruding vent pipes, chimneys, sky-it’s time to reroof, unsound sheathing should be

lights, and dormers—all potential dams that need to

replaced and drip edge installed around the perim-

be flashed to direct water around them. Consequently,

eter of the roof.

the condition (or absence) of roof flashings is of vital

Rust or light scaling on metal drip edge is not a

concern in home inspections.

problem if there’s no sign of leaks. Rusty flashing

should be scraped or sanded clean and coated with

DRIP EDGE OR RAKE EDGE FLASHING

rust-inhibiting paint. However, metal drip edge with

Drip edge flashing diverts water away from roof

corroded nail heads is probably a result of galvanic

edges, rather than allowing the water to be drawn by

action, typically when steel nails were used to fasten

capillary action back up under shingles or sheath-

aluminum flashing. Caulk holes or cover them with

ing. The drip edge also covers and protects sheathing

roofing cement to prevent leaks; replace the flashing

edges from gutter splashback and ice dams along

when reroofing.

RO O F S 65

is more vulnerable because there is only one shingle

layer in the middle of the valley: shingles from only

one roof plane cover the valley. Roofers often trim

the overlapping shingle down the valley center, which

could allow rainwater from one side to flow under ad-

jacent shingles. Cut shingles (the shingles that do not

overlap the valley) should be placed about 2 in. above

the valley center. (To keep shingles in place, roofers

often apply roofing cement or urethane caulk under

closed-cut shingles edges.)

When inspecting valleys, look for (1) debris that

could dam up water, (2) composition shingle (aka

asphalt shingle) surfaces that are worn or damaged,

(3) shingle edges that have curled up or eroded,

(4) nails or patched nail holes within 6 in. of a valley, and (5) roofing cement slathered down the center of

a valley—a common sign of leaks. Open valley flash-

ing that has light rust or scaling is unsightly but

One way to reduce leakage is to use roofing cement to

generally not a source of leaks.

glue shingle layers along the valley line. The inspector

should lift a few shingles to see if they’re secure. The

minimal patch in this photo has failed and will need

resealing.

EAVES FLASHING

VALLEY FLASHING

Shingles

The greater the water flow over an area, the greater

Waterproof membrane

the likelihood of (and damage from) leaks. Roof val-

or building paper

leys are particularly vulnerable because they channel

runoff from two roof planes. Basically, there are two

valley types: open, in which metal valley flashing

Sheathing

is exposed, and closed, in which flashing (if any) is

covered by shingles.

NOTE: Ideally, there should be no roofing nails

within 6 in. of a valley center.

Drip edge

Either valley treatment can shed water well, but

the slick metal flashing of an open valley clears water

faster, especially during a heavy downpour. The

Fascia

standing seam in the middle of the flashing also pre-

vents water from running across a valley and flowing

under shingles on the other side.

There are two common ways to shingle closed val-

Gutter

Soffit vent

leys: Woven valleys, in which shingles from both roof

planes overlap the valley, so that the valley center is

two shingles thick. The other type, closed-cut valleys,

66 ROOFS

RAKE AND EAVES FLASHING

You should also inspect a sloping roof’s rake edges

(along gable ends) and eaves (the lowest parts of a

sloped roof). There you can best see how many layers

of shingles are on the roof; if there are more than

two, the old layers must be stripped before reroofing.

In high-wind areas, you are most likely to see lifted or

damaged shingles along rakes and eaves. There

should also be metal flashings beneath the roofing

along the perimeter. Make a note if flashings are

missing or in poor condition.

In regions with long winters and a lot of snow,

examine eaves closely. If you see lifted or damaged

shingles, gouged or bent-up drip edges, weathered or

splitting eaves trim, or loose and deformed gutters,

you may be looking at the aftermath of an ice dam.

Ice dams form when snow on the roof melts, col-

Inside, you may find discolored insulation in the attic

lects at the eaves, and refreezes. That ice will block

new snowmelt, forcing water back up under shingles,

or water stains where walls meet ceilings. Such dam-

where it can leak and stain interior surfaces.

age can occur even on new and well-built houses.

Ice dams typically occur when snow on the roof

■

■

melts, flows over the shingles, collects at the eaves,

If roof valleys are open or have cut-edge shin-

gles, look for curled or eroded shingles.

and refreezes there. The sun melts some of the snow,

■

■

Are nail holes visible in valleys, or are valleys

but the real culprit is heated air from living spaces

smeared with roofing cement?

that rises into the attic and escapes through the roof

■

■

In cold regions, has flashing along the eaves been

deck. As those picturesque icicles build along the

damaged by ice dams or by homeowners chop-

eaves, the ice blocks new snowmelt and water starts

ping ice free?

backing up under the shingles, soaking roof sheath-

■

■

Where there is evidence of ice dams, look for

ing and framing. Water stains on finished surfaces

water stains or damage on interior surfaces.

and mold in the walls can follow.

VENT STACK FLASHING

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

Vent stacks, also called drain, waste, vent (DWV)

pipes, vent sewer gases. Vent stack flashing (or jack

■■ If the metal gleam of drip edge or rake edge

flashing is not apparent, lift shingles along the

flashing) is usually an integral unit with a neoprene

edges of eaves or gable ends for a better look.

collar atop a metal base flange. If the rubber collar of

■■ What’s the condition of shingles along the roof

the vent stack is cracked or deteriorated, it is showing

perimeter and, if accessible, the condition of roof

normal UV damage. Collars are cheap and easy to

sheathing? Have shingles along the roof perim-

replace; do so before leaks occur. Some pros prefer

eter been lifted by wind?

all-metal units because UV light won’t degrade them,

■■ Are any sections of metal drip edge or rake edge

but metal collars must be snipped and spread to

flashing corroded?

receive the stack, before being caulked with urethane

■■ If the roof has multiple planes, what type of val-

to prevent leaks, whereas neoprene collars slide easily

leys are present? Can water run freely down them

or are they clogged with leaves or debris?

down stacks.

RO O F S 67

With either type, roofing courses above overlap

combustible, creating explosions when sufficiently

the top of the base flange, covering the two nails that

concentrated. The stack should be extended above

secure it to the sheathing. The bottom of the base

the roof. Alternatively, a new solution to the prob-

flange, which overlaps shingles below, is secured by a

lems caused by too many roof penetrations is to use

bead of polyurethane caulk underneath.

air-admittance valves (see p. 173): They allow air to If the base flange of the vent stack flashing sits

flow into fixture vents, facilitating waste water flow

atop roof shingles, it has been installed incorrectly. It at fixtures, but close automatically to prevent the

should be reinstalled so that its upper edge is covered

escape of sewer gases.

by the course of shingles above. Caulk the underside

of its lower edge with polyurethane or apply roofing

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

cement to seal it to roofing.

■

■

Do flashing collars fit tight to vent stacks or are

NOTE : Vent stacks vent sewer gases, so they must

there gaps that water could enter?

be at least 3 ft. from operable windows.

■

■

Are rubberized collars cracked and deteriorated?

Stacks that are less than 3 ft. from an operable

They should be replaced.

window or a ventilator opening are a code violation.

■

■

Do shingles above overlap flashing base flanges,

Sewer gases could enter living spaces. Pipe extensions

and do flanges overlap shingles below?

can be added to increase stack height or the stack will

■

■

Are any vent stacks less than 3 ft. from an oper-

need to be relocated, which can be expensive.

able window or a ventilator opening?

■

■

VENT STACKS THAT TERMINATE UNDER

Do any vent stacks terminate under the roof—

that is, indoors?

the roof—that is, in the attic—are a serious code

violation and health risk. In winter, moist air rising

CHIMNEY FLASHING. Chimneys are complex

from the stack may condense, damaging sheathing

structures, so we’ll divide their inspection into two

and framing. Sewer gases can also be highly

parts: Here, we’ll focus on chimney flashing as it

Plumbing vents typically extend above the roof to

There are at least a half dozen bad building details

allow air flow into DWV pipes. Such vents should be

here, but we’ll focus on just one. The black vent pipe

flashed to prevent leaks. Rusty steel vent flashing can

should technically terminate above the upper roof

be coated with a rust-inhibiting paint to prolong its

to vent properly. Instead, it is next to a louver, which

life, but this whole roof is shot and needs replacing.

could allow sewer gases into the house. The vent

pipe is old and short, which suggests that the green-

trimmed building section (at left) was an unpermitted

and uncompleted addition.

68 ROOFS

SUPPORTING STACKS AND VENTS

This unsupported metal gas appliance

vent/flue needs bracing. Though ABS plastic plumb-

ing stacks stick up only 1 ft. or 2 ft. above the roof,

they don’t need additional support. But vent flues,

TV antennas, and electrical service pipes need ad-

equate bracing and flashing. Flash where flues exit

the roof and where braces attach to it.

This unsupported metal gas

appliance vent/flue should be

checked to see that it extends

above the upper roof line. The strict

rule (rarely observed) is that gas

appliance vent/flues closer than

8 ft. to an adjacent wall must

extend at least 24 in. above the

upper roof surface.

relates to roof integrity. We’ll cover the safety and

structural aspects of the chimney as part of the heat-

ing system (see Chapter 8).

Chimneys must be counterflashed. The upper

pieces of counterflashing are usually tucked into

chimney mortar joints and made to overhang various

pieces of base flashing, which are nailed to the roof

deck. Counterflashing and base pieces aren’t physi-

cally joined, so they can move independently yet still

repel water. This independence is necessary because

house foundations and chimney footings often settle

at different rates, which would cause single-piece

flashing to tear and leak.

The black roofing cement around the base of this

BASE FLASHING has several components. As

chimney was probably applied to repair leaks, so the

shingles butt against the chimney’s downslope face,

interiors below should be checked for stains. A silver-

colored final coating over the patch would look better

a metal apron is placed over them. Then, as shingles

and last longer.

ascend both sides of the chimney, they overlap the

bottoms of L-shaped step flashing. When shingle

RO O F S 69

courses along both sides of the chimney reach the

CHIMNEY FLASHING

back (upslope) face of the chimney, the lower flanges

of a cricket overlap them. A cricket, also called a

chimney saddle, is a sloping mini-roof whose slope(s)

Base Flashing

divert water around the chimney.

COUNTERFLASHING should overlap base flash-

Urethane caulk seals

tops of step-flashing.

ing by 4 in. Traditionally, shallow slots were cut into

chimney mortar joints to receive the barbed (folded)

lips of counterflashing. After jamming the lip of

counterflashing into the joint, the mason packed

strips of lead to hold the flashing in place, followed

by fresh mortar. These days, the joint is then filled

with a bead of urethane caulk to seal out moisture.

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

■

■

Is the chimney correctly counterflashed, with

upper flashing overlapping base pieces?

■

■

Step-flashing is

Look for loose or uplifted chimney flashing,

interwoven with shingles

which should be reseated so there are no gaps.

(4-in. overlap minimum).

■

■

Roofing cement slathered along the base of

Apron flange

overlaps shingles below

a chimney is a short-term solution for leaks.

by 4 in. minimum.

Though unsightly, it will usually stop leaks if it is

reapplied periodically.

■

■

If there is no cricket on the upslope face of a

chimney, debris, snow, and runoff can collect

Counterflashing

there. Any chimney more than 2 ft. wide should

have a cricket.

■

■

Is chimney mortar intact? Chimneys with eroded

Cricket flange

mortar joints are more likely to admit water

extends up under

shingles by 6 in.

leaks, allow combustion gases to escape, and fail

minimum.

structurally.

■

■

Rusty joints or pinholes on metal chimneys (flue

pipe) can allow superheated gases to escape and

set fire to combustible materials nearby. Dam-

aged flue pipe should be replaced.

SKYLIGHT FLASHING

Tops of apron, cricket, and

Skylight flashing on sloped roofs is similar to chim-

step-flashing are covered by

counterflashing.

ney flashing, with an apron on the downslope side of

the skylight frame, L-shaped pieces of step flashing

The apron flashing along the downslope of the chimney wraps along both sides, and a large piece of head flashing

around the corners of the chimney and is itself overlapped The apron flashing along the downslope of the chimney wraps by step-flashing coming down each side. The cricket on the along the upslope side of the skylight frame. Clad-around the corners of the chimney and is itself overlapped by step-upslope side is also complex; it wraps corners and overlaps flashing coming down each side. The cricket on the upslope side ding or curb caps cover (counterflash) the tops of

step-flashing below.

is also complex; it wraps corners and overlaps step-flashing below.

Have a sheet-metal shop solder all seams so they’ll be watertight.

base flashing. Flashing kits tend to be proprietary to

each skylight manufacturer.

70 ROOFS

Water runs downhill, so the roofing cement spread

These asbestos-cement ridge shingles have been

beneath this skylight is a fair indication that the perim-repaired in the past and need a little work. This type

eter of the skylight was not properly flashed and thus

of shingle can be very long lasting, but when it needs

leaked.

to be replaced, it should be done only by a certified

asbestos removal specialist.

Skylights on older flat roofs were typically flashed

around the skylight lightwell. The insulation should

by running membrane materials up the sides of the

be upgraded. A skylight frequently covered by snow

skylight curb, which were then sealed with several

may be mounted too low to the roof. Skylight curbs

layers of molten bitumen. Metal caps covered and

typically rise 6 in. above the roof deck.

sealed the exposed membrane edges. The whole

Skylights that rattle during storms may not be

assembly was coated with an aluminized emulsion to

adequately secured to the sheathing. The problem

reflect sunlight. It was a serviceable if somewhat

may be fixed with additional fasteners, which should

unsightly assembly and durable as long as the emul-

be caulked.

sion didn’t dry out and the membrane remained intact.

RIDGE FLASHING

DRIPS, LEAKS, AND RATTLES

Traditionally, ridges were flashed with a continu-

If a skylight drips and there is condensation between

ous strip of building paper folded lengthwise, which

its doubled panes, chances are the seal around the

straddled the ridge and overlapped the top courses of

panes has failed. The unit should be reglazed when

shingles. The paper was then covered with a shingle

weather permits or replaced. If the skylight leaks

saddle or overlapped ridge boards. Metal flashing

and, roof side, the flashing is corroded, it’s likely that was sometimes used instead of building paper. These

nails incompatible with the flashing were used. The

days, ridges are often covered with ridge vents that

flashing should be caulked to stop leaks and replaced

allow hot air to escape.

as soon as possible. This will mean disturbing roofing

around the unit. If skylight flashing is intact but the

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

unit leaks on its upslope side, the head flashing of the

■

■

Are all pieces of skylight flashing securely

skylight may have been incorrectly installed.

attached or have some worked loose?

Persistent ice dams around the skylight, with

■

■

Can you see corrosion on any sections of metal

concomitant leaking, are probably caused by heat

skylight flashing?

escaping around the perimeter of the unit. In other

■

■

Is double-pane skylight glazing cloudy? Chances

words, there is inadequate insulation in the ceiling

are the seal between panes has failed.

RO O F S 71

■■ Are there signs of water stains or damage inside,

NOTE : In both cases, there should also be at least below the skylight?

1 in. of clearance between the bottom of the siding

■■ If possible, ask the homeowner if the skylight is

and the roof surface beneath it. Otherwise wood sid-

frequently covered with snow.

ing will wick moisture, stay damp, and perhaps rot

■■ Is the roof ridge vented to allow hot air to

the sheathing and framing behind it. In snow coun-

escape, or is it unvented?

try, builders often leave 2 in. or 3 in. of clearance.

Where a shed roof abuts a wall, the upper leg of

FLASHING ADJOINING STRUCTURES

an L-shaped flashing should run up at least 4 in.,

Where dormers rise from sloping roofs or shed roofs

under both underlayment and siding—8 in. in snow

abut sidewalls, there will be a greater concentration

country. (Obviously, an inspector will not be able

of water and thus a greater potential for leaks. Cor-

to tell how high up the flashing runs under the sid-

rect flashing is the key to preventing such leaks.

ing.) The lower leg of the L-shaped flashing goes over

and is caulked to the top course of shingles on the

shed roof.

Where a gable-end addition abuts a sidewall or

a sloping roof meets a dormer wall, step flashing

should protect those junctures. This step flashing is

FLASHING A SHED ROOF

THAT ABUTS A WALL

similar to the L-shaped base flashing used along the

sides of a chimney, but there is no counterflashing

in this case. The upper legs of the step flashing are

Siding

nailed to wall sheathing and overlapped by under-

layment and siding. The lower legs of the step flash-

Sheathing

ing are interwoven with shingle courses.

When the sidewall–roof juncture leaks, home-

Underlayment

4 in.

minimum

owners often try to seal it with fibered roofing

Flashing

1-in. clearance

above roof

Flashing seated in

roofing cement

or urethane caulk

Wood shingles should terminate 1 in. to 2 in. above the

roof surface, and the shingle–roof joint should be flashed with L-shaped metal flashing whose upper legs are covered by siding. Here, wood shingles rest right on the

roofing. This is not the sort of rooftop garden you want.

72

RO O F S

cement, which tends to be black and ugly. As the

cement ages it turns gray, dries out, cracks, and fails.

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

■■ Does the bottom of sidewall or dormer siding

come in direct contact with roofing?

■■ Do you see discoloration and rot on the bottom

of the siding where it meets the roofing below?

Is that juncture clogged with leaves, moss, or

debris?

■■ Is the sidewall–dormer roof juncture smeared

with roofing cement?

The hole in this wall at the gutter end is a very likely

■■ Does the roofing cement look freshly applied or

point for rainwater entry and moisture-related

is it old and cracked?

damage.

Roof Drainage

In a heavy rain, a roof sheds an enormous amount of

water, so gutters and downspouts are needed to carry

runoff away from the house and its foundation. To

clear water adequately, gutters must be sized properly

and cleared of leaves and debris at least twice a year—

in spring and in fall.

GUTTERS

Building supply centers have elaborate gutter-sizing

charts based on regional rainfall, roof square foot-

age, and pitch. In general, 5-in.-wide gutters are

Downspouts often come loose, especially when un-

standard: 6-in. gutters are indicated for high-rain

fastened. Homeowners should review all rain gutters

areas. Downspouts should be sized to match gutters

and downspouts periodically during rainy weather for

obvious failures.

and made of the same material.

GUTTER MATERIALS. Aluminum is by far the

most popular gutter material because it is durable,

Regular maintenance is especially critical to built-in

resists corrosion, is easily worked, and is reasonably

gutters, “landlocked” as they are by materials that

priced. Galvanized steel is stronger, heavier, and

rot. The two most common gutter profiles are half

harder to dent, but it rusts if its paint wears off. PVC

round and K-style, in which the gutter has a squared-

plastic and vinyl are economical but the most prone

off back and an ogee front. (K-styles are also called

to cracking if struck or splitting if standing water

fascia or box gutters.)

in a clogged gutter or downspout freezes. Copper is

GUTTER SUPPORTS. Gutter sections should be

handsome, malleable, durable, and, thanks to soar-

supported by hangers (support straps) at least every

ing global prices, far more expensive than aluminum.

32 in.; closer if there’s a heavy snow or ice load.

On sloping roofs, most gutters are surface mounted

Gutter hangers can be grouped into two general

because they are easier to install; built-in gutters,

types: roof mounted, which employ a strap nailed to

an extension of roof framing, are typically wood.

roof sheathing, and fascia mounted, which screw or

RO O F S 73

nail directly to fascia boards or rafter tails. Gutters

ladders leaned against gutters or tree limbs banging

should slope at least 1 in. over 12 ft. toward a gutter

into them. In snow country, ice dams can also crush

outlet (drop outlet).

gutters.

Every gutter outlet must empty into a downspout.

Gutters and downspouts that bang in the wind

As obvious as this fact is, it’s easy to overlook miss-

are not adequately attached to the house. Similarly,

ing downspouts unless you make a point of looking

gutters that sag or overflow from an end without a

for them during an inspection. Downspouts should

downspout are insufficiently sloped or the support

discharge water at least 6 ft. away from the house or

straps have pulled loose. Gutters should slope at least

into solid subsurface drainpipes. Downspouts should 1 in. for every 12 ft.; a gutter mount every 32 in. is

not empty directly into perforated pipe because water

recommended if rafters are spaced 16 in. on-center.

will immediately drain out, close to the house.

If water shoots out the end of a gutter, it’s probably

CLOGS, LEAKS, AND RATTLES. If you observe

missing its end cap.

water stains or leaks behind gutters, most likely

Built-in wood gutters that leak haven’t been

gutters or downspouts are clogged. How bad the

maintained. Check for stains and damage to interior

conditions are depends on how long the clog(s) has

surfaces. Once the gutters have dried thoroughly,

existed. The remedy may be as simple as removing

survey them for rot. Scrape off rot and line damaged

the clog, but cleaning up the damage may require

areas with rubberized self-adhering flashing tape.

stripping siding or finish surfaces to uncover rot and

Replacing built-in gutters will be expensive.

mold. The absence of drip edge flashing may contrib-

DOWNSPOUTS

ute to stains and leaks behind gutters. If clogs have

As noted, downspouts should be the same size and

been cleared and gutters still overflow, they may be

material as gutters.

undersize for the amount of runoff.

Leaky joints on new downspouts are usually caused

Galvanized gutters that are leaking or stained

by an incorrect installation in which downspout

have likely rusted through. Patching rusted areas

sections have been installed upside down. In other

with polyurethane or mastic can prolong a gutter’s

words, the tapered ends of upper sections should fit

usable life for a season or two, but the gutters will

into lower sections to correctly channel water. If you need to be replaced soon. If gutters have collapsed

see upper sections overlapping lower sections, they

sections, there are several possible causes, including

Note the rotted eaves trim. The absence of drip edge

Sheet-metal rain gutters can be very rusty inside, so

flashing may contribute to stains and leaks behind

they should be checked annually and resealed as

gutters.

needed. The exposed wood sheathing above and at

the end of this gutter lack metal flashings.

74

RO O F S

Part of a thorough inspection is noting what’s not

there. Judging from the rotted fascia boards at right,

this gutter’s end cap has been missing for a long time.

Stained stucco behind a downspout seam indicates

that the downspout split. It should be removed from

the building, repaired, and remounted. Stucco is

somewhat porous, so it’s wise to move fast on a leak

like this.

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

■

■

What are gutters and downspouts made of?

What’s their general condition?

■

■

Are gutters continuous and without gaps or miss-

Flexible corrugated piping is a poor choice for down-

ing sections? Have any sections been crushed or

spouts connected to subsurface drain lines. It is easily

collapsed? Does every gutter outlet empty into a

damaged by foot traffic and difficult to run a snake

downspout?

through when clogged. This piping is especially egre-

■

■

Are gutters adequately supported or are there

gious because it is perforated (has holes) and should

loose or sagging sections?

be used only to collect subsurface water, never to

transport it.

■

■

Use a garden hose to flush gutters. Are gutters

open or clogged? Does water leak out of the

gutters and run down the siding? Are there water

need to be reversed. If you see stained siding behind

stains or discoloration on the siding?

a downspout, look first for an incorrect installation

■

■

Are galvanized gutters streaked with rust or

and next for rusted-out or split seams.

rusted through? Have they been patched with

roofing cement or mastic to stop leaks?

If a downspout discharges too close to the house,

■

■

the ground next to it may be soggy and sunken, and

Have wood gutters been maintained? Are there

any signs of rot or leakage? Is adjacent trim or

basement walls may be damp. Downspouts that

siding water stained or rotting?

discharge directly onto the ground (rather than into

■

■

Do upper sections of downspouts fit into lower

subsurface drains) should discharge at least 6 ft.

ones? Are all downspouts securely attached to

away from the house. Grading soil away from the

the house?

house will also help.

■

■

Do downspouts discharge at least 6 ft. away from

If soil near the house is damp when downspouts

the house or into subsurface drains?

feed into subsurface drainpipes, the drains may be

■

■

When you flush gutters and downspouts with a

clogged or damaged. A pipe inspection service can

garden hose, does the water disappear into sub-

surface drains or gush out of the bottom of the

determine the cause. If you see downspouts empty

downspout—a sign of clogged drains?

directly into perforated drainpipes, write it up in

■

■

If downspouts empty into perforated drainpipes,

your report. Perforated pipes should not be used as

write them up; drainpipe should be solid.

subsurface drains; solid drainpipe is required.

RO O F S 75

chapter 4

attIcS

There is no one righT sequence for inspecting a house. After examining a house’s exterior, however, many

pros resume the inspection in the attic. Flaws you noted

atop the roof will be fresh in mind as you look for leaks on its underside. Plus, if you start at the top and system-atically work down, you’ll be less likely to miss things.

76 attics

ceiling—and likely to distract you from inspecting.

If roofing nails stick down through the sheathing,

wear a hard hat to spare your head. Last, is your teta-

nus shot up to date?

Note anything else that might impede your

progress or impair your safety. From the hatch, can

you see exposed wiring splices, not in an electrical

box, that may pose a shock hazard? Is the attic cool

enough for you to spend the time you need to inspect

it carefully? Unvented attics can reach 140°F in the

summer, so it's best to inspect them early in the

morning before things heat up.

Before you enter an attic, reconnoiter. Are there floor-

boards? Can you move freely about the attic or should

you do your inspection from the access opening?

Framing and sheathing

“Roof Support Elements,” on p. 78, contains most of the framing elements you’ll find in an unfinished

Attic safety

attic, though all may not be present. Most terms are

You’re likely to find just about anything in an attic,

obvious enough, but a few may be unfamiliar. Collar

from an airy, light-filled suite of rooms to a suffocat-

ties connect opposite rafters and keep them from

ingly hot, dark, dusty crawl space. Access to attics is

spreading; purlins are horizontal beams that support

similarly diverse, from a flight of stairs to a pull-

rafters and keep them from sagging. Around the

down ladder to a hatch tucked away in a hall or closet

perimeter of the attic, rafters rest on the walls’ top

stuffed with clothes. Prepare for the worst and you’ll

plates, which are often doubled. Typically, attic floor

be ready for anything.

joists are also ceiling joists for the rooms immedi-

Let’s assume that you’ll be inspecting an unfin-

ately below.

ished attic in which the underside of the sheathing

and the framing will be visible. For starters, if your

InSpectIng the framIng

attic access is a ceiling hatch, wear eye protection

In older homes, a certain amount of sagging is

in case dust and debris rains down on you when you

normal. In regions that don’t get snow, old rafters

open things up. Wear a dust mask and heavy gloves,

too. You’ll need a light source, preferably a flashlight

strong enough to illuminate the perimeter of the

attic, where the roof meets the walls.

Reconnoiter before you enter. Is there enough

cloSe call

height for you to move around or should you make

your observations from the hatch opening? Is the

For attic egress in new construction,

attic so jammed with boxes and stored items that

the International Residential Code® specifies a

there’s little room to move? Are there floorboards?

minimum opening of 22 in. by 30 in., with 30 in. of

headroom. When home inspectors encounter access

If not, you could bring up a few boards or scraps

openings smaller than that, they must make a judg-

of plywood to span attic floor joists and create a

ment call about how tight an opening they are willing

walkway. But as a rule, professional inspectors won’t

to worm through. In some cases, it’s a close call.

bring walkway boards up into an attic. Stepping from

joist to joist is risky—you could step through the

77

roof Support elementS

Ridge

Rafter

Collar tie

Purlin

Brace

Ceiling

Top plates

joist

Bearing walls

are often undersize by today’s standards, commonly

2×4s spaced 16 in. or 24 in. on-center. In time they

sag, especially if weighed down by several layers of

roofing. After the old roofing has been stripped and

a new roof applied, rafters may still sag because they

have deformed into that shape. It’s generally not

something to worry about. (Installing new sheathing

will usually stiffen the roof up.)

Of greater concern is framing that has cracked due

to stress, such as the purlin shown in the photo at left.

A structural engineer should inspect such failures

and prescribe a fix. (A cracked rafter or rafter support

may need to be bolstered from below, reinforced with

lumber sistered to it, or replaced.) Note any framing

members that are failing because an inept renovator

The most common cause of rafter and purlin failure is

excessive loading during reroofing or, over time, too

cut into them, perhaps to install a skylight, vent an

many layers of roofing. This broken purlin should be

exhaust fan, or run a plumbing vent stack.

supported till it can be replaced.

When examining framing in the attic, don’t forget

ceiling joists. In older houses joists are often under-

78 attics

size for the distances they span or the weight of the

stuff stored on them. This situation may be exacer-

bated if walls below have been removed. In addition,

roof truSSeS

homeowners sometimes cut or notch ceiling joists,

which lessens the distance they can span. Use a level

In houses built from the 1950s on,

to see if attic joists are sagging and, roughly, by how

you may find roof trusses, an engineered framing

much. Note too if joists seem especially springy as

system whose many diagonal braces make it difficult

to move through an attic. You can, of course, limit

you shift your weight on them. In older houses with

your inspection to what you can see from the attic

plaster ceilings, some inspectors won’t traverse attic

opening. But two triggers should encourage you

joists because they don’t want to risk damaging the

to brave the braces and inspect as many trusses

plaster.

as possible:

Occasionally, an inspector will find framing

1. If roof sags are visible from the exterior, the truss system may have failed.

charred by a fire. Charred lumber is typically wire-

2. If you see any indications that the original truss brushed to determine the extent of damage. Many

framing was improperly modified, say, to add an

building departments require that significantly

attic furnace, a skylight, or an addition.

damaged framing be replaced, whereas minor dam-

Any modifications to the original truss framing should

age may be painted to seal in smoke odors. If there’s

be approved by an engineer.

any doubt about the integrity of the framing that

remains, replace all fire-damaged lumber before

installing new roofing.

InSpectIng the SheathIng

The primary reason to inspect the underside of the

roof sheathing is to look for active leaks. Occasionally, an inspection will turn up plywood sheathing that

is delaminating or sagging between rafters because

the plywood used was too thin. Sagging sheathing

should be replaced or supplemented the next time the

roof is stripped, but otherwise it’s rarely a problem

that needs to be attended to right now.

In older houses, the original skip sheathing is

sometimes still on the roof. Skip sheathing (or

spaced sheathing) consists of 1-in. boards nailed to

Wood shingles are designed to fit tightly and become

waterproof as they get wet and swell. This kind of

rafters, with spaces between boards to allow circulat-

water staining is common and doesn’t indicate active

ing air to dry wood shingles between rains. Often,

leaks. The best way to check for active leaks is to shine the skip sheathing was covered with plywood or OSB

a bright flashlight through the attic when it’s raining.

sheathing the first time the roof was stripped and

composition shingles were installed. But if the roof

there are active leaks. The only way to be sure of that was never stripped, you may see the original wood

is to be under the roof when it’s raining. Beyond that,

shingles from underneath, buried under one or more

look for water pooled on attic floors or insulation, or

layers of roofing.

note wood that is damp or spongy with rot. The most

The underside of roof sheathing or framing is often

probable places to find active leaks are where chim-

discolored and water stained, but that doesn’t mean

neys, skylights, vent stacks, exhaust fans, and flue

a t t i c s 79

pipes exit through the roof. As you saw in Chapter 3,

What to look for

correct flashing is the key to avoiding leaks. So use

■

■

After a rain, can you see isolated stains running

the notes from your roof inspection to inform your

down rafters or sheathing? Is any wood damp to

inspection under the roof. (We will say more about

the touch?

chimneys, vents, and flues at the end of this chapter.)

■

■

Are there water stains or discoloration where

In snow country, especially look for water stains,

chimneys, flues, pipes, or vents pass through the

roof? Are there stains around skylights?

water damage, and other evidence of leaks along

■

■

Are there water stains or signs of pooling on the

roof–wall joints, where rafters rest on the top plates.

attic floor or in insulation?

This is the area where heat escapes, melts snow, and

■

■

If winters are severe, can you see water stains or

causes ice dams (see p. 67). These junctures are often damage where the roof meets the walls?

narrow triangular spaces, but do your best to shine

■

■

Do rafters sag? Are there gaps where rafters

a flashlight beam into them. As you will see in the

meet at the ridge?

following sections, sometimes water damage is not

■

■

Are any rafters or other structural members

caused by leaks from above but from water vapor ris-

cracked or broken? Have any been cut into?

ing up from living spaces.

■

■

Do structural supports (such as collar ties) ap-

So even if you are not 100% sure what is causing

pear to be missing?

all the stains or moisture problems in the attic, note

■

■

Are there signs (or smells) of earlier fire damage?

where you see them. By comparing the careful obser-

■

■

If the roof is supported by trusses, have any been

vations you make throughout the house, you should

cut through or notched? When you inspected this

(trussed) roof from the outside, did it sag?

soon be able to pinpoint problems and identify prob-

■

■

What kind of sheathing is visible from the under-

able causes.

side of the roof? Does the roof appear to have

many layers of roofing?

■

■

Is sheathing discolored, delaminating, or sagging

between rafters?

■

■

Do attic floor joists seem excessively springy?

Have any floor joists been cut through or

notched? In which direction do floor joists slope?

Ventilation

Adequate ventilation is essential to the comfort and

health of the people who live in a house and to the

health of the building itself. By getting rid of excess

heat trapped under the roof, ventilation lowers ambi-

ent temperatures and thus lowers energy costs (for

air-conditioning). Roofing manufacturers argue that

a cooler attic extends the life of the roofing as well.

But perhaps the most compelling reason to improve

The framing near this brick chimney was weak and had

ventilation is getting rid of excess moisture.

to be bolstered when a new roof was installed. Exam-

The average household generates a prodigious

ine the chimney flashings to be sure they are correctly

installed.

amount of water vapor, principally by cooking and

showering. Exhaust fans in kitchens and bathrooms

can help reduce interior moisture. But because warm

80 attics

attIc ventS

Ridge vent

Passive ventilation. As air heats

beneath a roof, it rises and exits

at a ridge or gable-end vent.

Gable-end vent

Soffit vent

air rises, a large portion of that water vapor will col-

paSSIve and mechanIcal

ventIlatIon

lect near the ceiling, where it will migrate into the

There are two ways to ventilate an attic, one of which

attic through air leaks in recessed ceiling light cans,

costs nothing to operate. Passive ventilation is based

seams between wall and ceiling drywall, and uninsu-

on the natural phenomenon that warm air rises.

lated air shafts and attic floors.

Typically, exterior air enters the attic through soffit

When warm, moist air gets to the attic, it will stay

vents; is warmed as the sun heats the roof; and exits

there unless circulating air (ventilation) allows mois-

through a ridge vent, a gable-end vent, or some inter-

ture to exit the building through roof vents, gable-end

mediate vent such as a roof turbine. Codes typically

louvers, and the like. In time, excess moisture can

require a minimum of 1 sq. ft. of vents per 300 sq. ft.

soak insulation and delaminate sheathing. It starts

of attic space, more or less equally divided between

as water stains, progresses to mold, and can end as

eave and ridge vents.

rotted framing. When it’s cold outside, warm, moist

If moist interior air has migrated into the attic,

interior air condenses when it gets to unheated at-

it will mix with incoming exterior air and escape

tics. It may be visible as frost on the underside of the

harmlessly. For passive ventilation to work, however,

sheathing or on roofing nails. And if there’s snow on

air must flow unimpeded. If soffit vent screens are

the roof, that warm, rising air will melt it, causing wa-

painted shut or insulation blocks incoming air, pas-

ter to run down the roof and then refreeze at the eaves,

sive ventilation won’t occur. Exit vents must also be

producing spectacular and highly destructive ice jams.

All totally avoidable with adequate attic ventilation.

a t t i c s 81

keepIng

crItterS out

Vent openings should be screened with

mesh fine enough to keep out wasps, mice, and other

pests that would also enjoy a roof over their heads. In

addition to building (and fouling) nests in your insula-

tion, they are fond of chewing things. The sheathing

on electrical cables and telephone wires is a particu-

lar favorite.

Bathroom and kitchen fan ducts must extend to the

building exterior, especially in cold weather climates.

In this example the fan duct ends inside the house

where moisture will condense in the attic, possibly

leading to mold and wood decay.

inspection takes place on a hot day, the attic fan

should cycle during the hour or two that the inspec-

tor is there. Otherwise, the inspector can flip the

manual override on–off switch or lower the thermo-

stat till the fan turns on.

If neither of those methods turns the fan on, the

unit is not working and should be inspected by an

HVAC specialist. Assessing why a fan is not working

or assessing its efficiency is not the responsibility of

Old-style attic louvered vents have large openings

that can allow rodents and other animals to enter.

an inspector doing a general home inspection.

Installing 1⁄4-in. metal screening on the inside is usually Whole-house fans are typically mounted in an attic,

the best fix.

either on the attic floor or high on an exterior attic wall (in a house with a sloping roof, on a gable-end wall).

Whole-house fans are usually controlled by a thermo-

stat, though combination thermostat/humidistat

clear. In short, inspect all vents to see that they are

controls are available on more expensive models.

open and that the screens are not damaged.

For mechanical ventilation to work correctly,

Mechanical ventilation is provided by electric fans.

intake vents must be adequately sized. Otherwise,

Ideally, moisture should be exhausted where it is

powerful fans can create negative pressurization—

created by a range hood over the stove or a bath fan

also called back pressure—within the house. Back

over a shower. Attic fans can be controlled by a

pressure can suck gas furnace exhaust fumes back

thermostat that turns on when a preset temperature

into a house rather than allowing them to rise and

is reached, or by a humidistat that is triggered by the

exit out the flue pipe. This is a dangerous situation. If level of humidity, regardless of temperature. If the

there is insufficient intake air when the whole-house

82 attics

fan is running, you can feel air being drawn through

electrical outlets or you may notice flames on a gas

stove flicker or lean when you turn on the fan. An

energy audit with a blower-door test can measure the

degree of the back pressure created; an HVAC special-

ist can also analyze the fan’s performance.

Conversely, attic exhaust vents must also be large

enough so the overheated air can get out. Other-

wise the fan will run and run, with little appreciable

change in house temperatures.

What to look for

■■ Is the attic excessively hot in the summer? During

the winter, do ice dams form along eaves?

■■ Are there soffit vents along the eaves? Are they

Insulation batts in unheated attics must be installed so

screened? Are there ridge, gable-end vents, tur-

that their vapor retarder—paper or foil facing—faces

bines, or other vents high on the roof to allow hot

down, toward living spaces. This batt is installed cor-

rectly, but many codes do not allow insulation to cover

air to escape?

exposed wires, such as the knob-and-tube wiring shown.

■■ Are screened soffit vents painted shut? Is attic

insulation tucked into the roof–wall joint blocking

air coming up from soffit vents?

Follow Department of Energy regional recommen-

■■ Can you see widespread staining, delaminating

dations for how much insulation to put in your roof;

sheathing, or rusty roofing nails?

for more temperate parts of the U.S., the standard for

■■ Are ceilings below the attic moldy or water

new construction is R-30 or R-35. Precut fiberglass

stained?

batts are the type most widely installed. Alternately

■■ Does the attic meet minimum standards for vent-

cotton batts treated with borate to inhibit mold are

ing: 1 sq. ft. of vents per 300 sq. ft. of attic?

■■

gaining popularity among the green minded. Mineral

Are attic fans operational?

wool batts, spun from natural stone or metal oxides,

■■ With the palm of your hand held over electrical

outlets, can you feel exterior air being sucked

are the most fire resistant insulation of any type.

into the house when a whole-house fan is running?

Loose-fill insulation, usually cellulose or fiber-

■■ Does the house remain excessively hot even after

glass, is frequently used to retrofit unfinished attics.

a whole-house fan has run for hours?

Loose cellulose, made from recycled newspapers

treated with borate, is considered very green and

insulation

highly efficient. While rodent activity is common in

Attics should be insulated to conserve conditioned

attics with loose fiberglass it is rare or nonexistent

air in the living spaces below. In frigid northern re-

with cellulose insulation.

gions, conserving heat is the goal; in sunny southern

Rigid foam panels have great R-values but they are

climes, insulation keeps hot exterior air outside so

rarely used to insulate attic floors because joists are

that air-conditioned living spaces keep cool. If attic

frequently irregularly sized or spaced. Even with a

spaces are to be finished and used as living spaces,

lot of cutting and fitting of panels, there would be

insulation will be installed between rafters. In un-

a lot of gaps.

finished attics, however, it is most cost-effective to

insulate between ceiling joists.

a t t i c s 83

vapor retarderS

Accordingly, if a homeowner has added new batts

Excess moisture inside a house can lead to big

atop existing insulation, the new batts should not

problems. Thus insulation materials are chosen, in

be paper or foil faced. Condensation problems will

part, on how permeable or impermeable they are to

occur. If there are two layers of insulation with vapor

water vapor. Unfaced insulation batts allow moisture

retarders, the paper or foil facing of the top layer

to move freely through them; whereas batts that are

should be slit with a razor knife to allow moisture to

paper faced or foil faced will retard the movement of

pass through.

water vapor. Hence vapor retarders. (Vapor barriers

don’t InSulate here!

are materials such as sheet plastic, which completely

In general, insulation should not touch masonry

block water vapor.)

chimneys or old-style light fixtures because that

Vapor retarders are especially important in cold

could lead to excessive heat buildup. Nor should

winter climates because the temperature differential

insulation cover exposed wire splices (electrical con-

can cause condensation to form. Vapor retarders are

nections not in a junction box) or ceiling-light cans

not typically installed in uninsulated floor fram-

that are not IC rated. These and other fire hazards

ing or when attic insulation is added in moderate

are explained at greater length later in this chapter.

climates.

Knob-and-tube wiring, common in older houses, is

Note : Insulation should always be installed so that generally not covered by insulation either, though

its foil or paper facing is adjacent to the conditioned

local code specifics vary.

surface, typically down and against the ceiling in

an attic. If you see insulation whose paper or foil

BIg heat loSerS

facing faces up in an unfinished attic, write it up; it’s Home inspectors should be on the lookout for the

wrong. Moist air rising from living spaces below will

items in the following list. They are big air leakers

condense on the back of that cool facing and, in time,

and thus heat losers as well as expressways for warm,

soak the insulation.

moist air rising into the attic.

Insulation should not be placed over or next to ceiling-

The vertical walls around a skylight well should be

mounted light cans (fixtures) that are not insulation

insulated; otherwise heated interior air will escape

contact (IC) rated—they may overheat and start a fire.

through these walls in cold weather.

Ideally, such cans should be replaced with safer IC-

rated fixtures.

84 attics

1. Uninsulated attic hatch covers and skylight wells.

What to look for

Fortunately, both can be insulated easily with

■

■

Is attic insulation evenly distributed? Does insula-

fiberglass batts or rigid foam panels.

tion cover hard-to-reach spots?

2. The 2-in. gap between a masonry chimney and

■

■

What type of insulation is there? If batts, are they

wood framing is required by fire codes in the event

unfaced or faced with paper or foil?

that a failed chimney flue allowed super-heated

■

■

Does paper or foil facing on fiberglass batts face

gases to escape. To reduce heat loss through that

up in an unfinished attic?

■

■

gap, it should be packed with a noncombustible

If a second layer of insulation batts has been

installed over an original layer, are batts in the

material such as rock wool and covered with strips

second layer faced or unfaced?

of sheet metal.

■

■

Is attic insulation damp or discolored? Are the

3. Open framing above chases and soffits can be a

undersides of insulation batts moldy?

freeway for drafts, so large openings should be

■

■

Does insulation touch a masonry chimney or

closed with drywall panels or rigid-foam panels.

cover old-style ceiling light cans?

4. Old bath fan boxes’ flanges and seams can leak

■

■

Are attic hatches or skylight wells uninsulated?

moisture-laden air into an attic. Leaks should

■

■

Are there large gaps in the attic framing that

be caulked. And as noted on p. 80, if any fan might leak moist, heated air from living spaces

exhausts into the attic, rather than to the outside,

below?

it needs a vent pipe that exits through the roof or

■

■

Are heating and air-conditioning ducts insulated?

an exterior wall.

■

■

Do any exhaust fan ducts terminate in the attic?

5. Recessed ceiling lights (ceiling cans) are big leakers, especially old, non-IC-rated cans that can’t be

health and safety concerns

covered with insulation. They should be replaced

As noted throughout this chapter, excessive interior

with IC-rated cans, some of which are airtight;

moisture can lead to delaminated sheathing and

otherwise, they can be covered with special

rotted framing. But long before those dramatic symp-

mineral wool covers. An alternative is fire-rated

toms manifest, mold may be growing on drywall

recessed light covers, which are compatible with

ceilings and walls and circulating throughout the

blown-in or lain-in insulation, mineral wool, fiber

house. Mold can make some individuals very sick,

glass, blown-in cellulose, and spray foam.

so excess moisture is a health concern as well.

6. Oversize openings for plumbing vent pipes, water supply pipes, and electrical boxes can be sealed

range hoodS and Bath fanS

with expanding foam, if you can find those open-

Range hoods and bath fans can do much to reduce

ings under the insulation.

interior moisture, but only if they are vented correctly

7. Heating and air-conditioning ducts without

through the roof or an exterior wall. This is especially

insulation are big energy wasters. Sometimes the

important in cold weather climates where attic venti-

insulation is on the inside of the ducts, however, so

lation is critical to prevent condensation or ice dams.

rap them with a knuckle to see. Insulated duct-raps

All too frequently, however, inspectors will find

sound dull; uninsulated ducts sound high and hol-

fan ducts that terminate in the attic. This is worse

low when rapped.

than no fan at all because moisture from bathing or

8. The perimeter of an attic with sloping roofs can, cooking will condense in a cold attic space, near the

with patience, be insulated, but baffles should be

vent opening, creating conditions conducive to mold

installed first to keep insulation from blocking air

growth and worse. Such ducts must be extended

flow up from the eaves.

outside to vent correctly.

a t t i c s 85

This ABS vent stack’s support failed and the stack

A rodent nest in loose fiberglass insulation. A rodent-

has fallen into the attic, leaving a hole in the roofing

abatement specialist should remove the damaged

through which rain can enter.

insulation, deal with the infestation, and seal probable

entry points.

plumBIng ventS

rodent neStS

Plumbing vents sometimes fall short, too, and ter-

Rodent nests in insulation are both a smelly nuisance

minate in the attic. In addition to dumping moist air

and a health hazard. Rats and mice infected with a

into a closed space, such stacks are a plumbing code

hantavirus can transmit it via their saliva, urine, and

violation that should be corrected immediately by ex-

feces. Should their leavings be disturbed they can

tending them through the roof and properly flashing

become airborne; humans inhaling those airborne

them to prevent roof leaks. Plumbing vents equipped

particles can become quite ill. For this reason, nests

with special air-admittance valves are now being

should be removed by a pest eradication specialist.

used more frequently because they do not penetrate

fIre hazardS

the roof.

Fire hazards in the attic include the following issues.

Vent stacks perform two critical functions: (1) They

FurnAce or AppliAnce VenT ( Flue ) pipes

admit air into waste pipes so that when, say, a toilet

that are too close to combustible surfaces or that lack

is flushed, falling wastes do not suck the water out of

appropriate double-wall roof adaptors are a fire haz-

the fixture trap. Water traps keep sewer gases from

ard. Safe clearance distances are usually embossed

entering living spaces. (2) Vent stacks also direct

on the flue pipe or on a sticker affixed to it. Single-

sewer gases out of the house, so that they disperse

wall metal flue pipes typically require a 6-in. clear-

harmlessly in the air. Sewer gases released in high

ance from combustibles, though many codes forbid

concentrations in confined spaces can be toxic.

using single-wall flues in unfinished spaces. Type B

Inspectors should also note plumbing vents that

double-wall metal flue pipes require a 1-in. clearance

are inadequately supported, such as the vent shown

from combustibles. An HVAC specialist should check

in the left photo above. Even if the vent is intact at

the flue and roof adaptor; he or she will know local

the time of the inspection, it could subsequently fail,

code requirements.

cracking or slipping down into the attic, creating an

DirTy, cluTTereD ATTics can exacerbate

unfilled vent hole in the roof.

almost every problem mentioned in this chapter.

86 attics

Here, an unsafe single-wall cap and flue pipe have

been used to vent a furnace. This is a fire hazard and

superheated flue gases have charred nearby plywood

When a roof is stripped, it’s important that the roof-

sheathing. Before the furnace is used again, a heating

ing contractor remove debris that falls into the attic.

contractor should replace this flue pipe and cap with

Otherwise, combustible debris can create a potential

appropriate double-wall equipment.

fire hazard.

Even if an appliance flue pipe is correctly installed,

exposeD wire splices, a violation of electri-

for example, it becomes a fire hazard if debris gener-

cal codes, have the potential to shock people who

ated by a roof stripping is not cleaned up and it lodges

come in contact with them and to set fire to combus-

next to that flue pipe. Likewise, too much stuff stored

tibles. All electrical connections must take place in

in an attic on undersize ceiling joists isn’t helping

covered boxes. Wires can work loose and electricity

anything.

can arc (jump) between conductors, especially when

MAsonry chiMneys are discussed at greater

connections are exposed. Because arcs are extremely

length on p. 208. To summarize, there must be a min-hot—they can approach 2000°F—they can easily

imum 2-in. separation between masonry chimneys

ignite combustibles nearby. Insulation coming in

and combustibles such as framing. Insulation should

contact with exposed splices is very serious and

not come in direct contact with a chimney, with the

should be corrected immediately. If you see exposed

exception of mineral wool, which is fire resistant.

wire splices anywhere, have a qualified electrician

Masonry chimneys must be lined with flue tile, which

perform a detailed inspection.

must be intact (no cracks) and continuous to safely

unproTecTeD wires could be damaged.

contain superheated gases. The chimney must be cor-

Electrical wires, whether knob-and-tube or Romex

rectly flashed to prevent roof leaks, and its concrete

(nonmetallic sheathed cable), should never be run on

cap must be solid and uncracked. In the attic, an

horizontal surfaces in the attic where residents are

inspector should note crumbling mortar joints and

likely to store boxes and other items; nor should elec-

cracks, which may denote a chimney that is settling.

trical cables be installed on top of framing within

Take particular note of creosote stains leaking out of

6 ft. of an attic access opening. Such wiring is typi-

mortar joints, which often indicate a failed flue liner,

cally installed behind finish surfaces, where it cannot

perhaps cracked during a chimney fire.

be disturbed. Where wiring must be surface mounted,

it must be protected by metal conduit or armored

electrIcal hazardS

cable. Nailing a board next to wires can also provide

Electrical hazards in the attic include the following

needed protection.

issues.

a t t i c s 87

may require special trim, lamp type, and wattage. If

in doubt, recommend review by a qualified electri-

cian. Installing special attic covers over them is not a

bad plan.

roDenTs chew electrical wires. Another reason

to rid the attic of them. Write up any signs of nesting

or wire sheathing that appears to be chewed, cracked,

or otherwise damaged.

All electrical connections must be housed in a covered

What to look for

box. Splices like these can separate, arc, and create

■

■

both shock and fire hazards. Insulation should not

Do bath-fan or range-hood ducts terminate in the

cover exposed splices.

attic? Is there condensation or water stains at the

end of the duct(s)?

■

■

Are plumbing vents adequately supported? Have

any stacks cracked or slipped down from their

openings in the roof? Do stacks terminate inside

the attic? Any sewer smells?

■

■

Are there any signs of scorched wood near metal

flue pipes? Do flue pipes exit the roof through a

double-wall roof adaptor?

■

■

Are combustible materials such as framing, roof-

ing debris, or insulation in contact with metal

flue pipe?

■

■

What is the general condition of the masonry

chimney? Are mortar joints crumbling or

Electrical wires—whether knob-and-tube or plastic-

cracked? Are any portions of the chimney dis-

sheathed Romex—should not be installed on horizontal

surfaces where residents or stored items are likely to

colored with creosote stains?

touch or disturb wires.

■

■

Does insulation or wood framing come in contact

with the masonry chimney or is there a 2-in.

clearance all around the chimney?

Knob-AnD-Tube ( KT) wiring is not inher-

■

■

Are there any signs of rodents nesting in attic

ently unsafe, and most electrical codes allow its con-

insulation? Has the sheathing of electrical wires

tinued use if it is properly installed. Because the air

been chewed?

■

■

that flows around KT wiring is included in its load-

Are electrical cables stapled near the attic access

opening? Do unprotected cables run along hori-

carrying capacity these wires need to be kept cool.

zontal surfaces where cables could be damaged

Thus some areas do not allow covering KT with insula-

or inhabitants could be shocked?

tion. In particular, the facing on insulation batts

■

■

Are exposed wire splices visible—not protected

should never touch KT connections: Foil facing is an

in covered boxes? Does insulation make contact

electrical conductor and paper facing is combustible.

or cover exposed electrical splices?

non-ic-rATeD ceiling lighT cAns should

■

■

Are old-style (non-IC-rated) ceiling light cans in

never come in contact with, nor be covered by, insula-

contact with insulation or covered by it?

■

■

tion. The standard clearance requirement is 3 in.

Is knob-and-tube wiring visible in the attic? Is

wire insulation in good condition or is it cracked,

between non-IC-rated cans and insulation. It can be

frayed, or damaged? Does insulation cover or

difficult to determine if a fixture, even if IC labeled,

come in contact with KT wiring?

is actually IC rated because the manufacturer’s specs

88 attics

CHAPTER 5

FOUNDATIONS,

BASEMENTS, and

CRAWL SPACES

AS A SEASONED INSPECTOR ONCE SAID, “Under the

house is where the ‘money stuff’ is.” Big problems in

basements or crawl spaces, such as inadequate founda-

tions, deteriorated substructure framing, or persistent

water penetration, can be very expensive to correct.

As a home inspector you must, of course, call it as you

see it, but in this area be doubly sure you are seeing it correctly. In other words, consider the simplest, most obvi-

ous explanations first. If you see wet foundation walls,

for example, make sure that gutters and downspouts are

clear and working and that the soil is graded away from

the house before assuming that the foundation must be

excavated and that an expensive perimeter drain system

is the remedy.

If you do inspect under the house, it’s a wise pre-

caution to touch a voltage tester (such as the induc-

tance tester shown on p. 119) to metal water supply pipes, metal ducts, the water heater housing, and any

other metal surfaces that could become energized by

a ground fault. A correctly grounded electrical system

(p. 137) should protect you against ground faults, but, again, you should not assume that a system is

correctly wired. (That’s one of the things you will

learn in the course of your inspection.) If your volt-

age tester indicates electrical current in things that

shouldn’t be energized, leave the space.

Gas odor: If you smell gas or fuel oil upon open-

ing a basement door or crawl space hatch, stay out

till the source of the smell can be ascertained and

Basement stairs are often marginally strong, do not

corrected. Some inspectors limit their risk by turn-

have proper handrails for safe use, and have low over-

head clearances.

ing off the main gas valve, opening up windows to

ventilate the space while they perform other tasks,

and return later to inspect the space if the smell has

Access and Safety

abated enough.

Access to basements and crawl spaces varies widely,

Some crawl spaces with barely accessible hatches

especially in older houses, where access was often an

(18 in. by 18 in.) don’t have enough room inside to get

afterthought. Basements may be accessed by outside

around, even though they meet Federal Housing

stairs, which you should first inspect to be sure they

Administration (FHA) minimum standards. Those

will bear your weight. As outside doors are often

standards were probably designed with ventilation, not

locked, have a spare padlock on hand if there’s no

key for the existing lock. Inside access is typically

through interior stairs, although, there again, check

their condition before you descend. Crawl space ac-

cess can be through a hatch in a closet floor, through

a basement wall, or through a small door outside

near the soil level.

Potential shock hazard: If you see standing

water or wet soil and improper wiring, don’t enter the basement or crawl space. Water or dampness alone is

no reason to stay out, but exposed wire splices (not

inside a covered box), improperly supported wire

runs, or other evidence of substandard practices are

signs that there may be shock hazards as well. Add

If you see wet soil and improper wiring under the the presence of water and shocks could be fatal. Most

house, stay out. Here, water from a plumbing leak

cascades off a heating duct. A plumber should fix the

licensed electricians won’t enter such spaces either,

leak and a portable sump pump should be brought in

unless they turn off all power to the building first.

to remove standing water.

90 FOUNDATIONS, BASEMENTS, AND CRAWL SPACES

home inspectors, in mind. Typically, FHA-minimum

Where the ground freezes, foundation footings

headroom is 18 in. from the ground level to the

need to be dug below the frost line, as stipulated

bottom of floor joists, with 12 in. allowable from the

by local codes. Below the frost line, footings aren’t

ground to the underside of a girder. In newer

susceptible to the potentially tremendous lifting and

construction access openings should be at least 16 in.

sinking forces of freeze–thaw cycles in moist soil.

by 24 in. It’s wise to recommend a proper access

(Thus, most houses in cold climates often have full

opening be installed. Areas that are inaccessible are

basements, sort of a bonus for having to sink foot-

much more likely to have problems because they are

ings so deep.)

not available for routine maintenance.

THE T, OR SPREAD, FOUNDATION is perhaps

In some areas with poor drainage the crawl space

the most commonly used type, so named because its

soils are often damp. For any basement or crawl

cross section looks like an inverted T. It’s remark-

space you choose not to enter, do your best to make

ably adaptable. On a flat site in temperate regions, a

your inspection from the doorway or access hatch. A

shallow T foundation is usually enough to support a

strong flashlight will help. It’s not ideal, but it’s the house, while creating a crawl space that allows joist

best you can do. On your report, note that you could

access and ventilation. When T foundations fail, they

not gain access.

often do so because they’re unreinforced or have too

Other obstructions: Access may also be ob-

small or too shallow a footprint.

structed by ducting, pipes, stored items, finished

SLAB ON GRADE is a giant pad of reinforced con-

wall surfaces, furnaces or water heaters, and crea-

crete, poured simultaneously with a slightly thicker

tures under the house. If the homeowner is willing

perimeter footing that increases its load-bearing

to move stored objects, you can resume the basement

capabilities. Beneath the slab, there’s typically a layer inspection after that is done. In short, do what’s

of crushed gravel covered by sheet plastic to prevent

reasonable to access as much of the basement as you

moisture from wicking up from the soil. Slabs are

can. The report should describe those locations that

generally installed on flat lots where the ground

were inaccessible and recommend further inspection

doesn’t freeze because, being above frost line, shal-

when access can be provided.

low slabs are vulnerable to frost heaves.

Some slabs are poured over perimeter T founda-

Foundation Basics

tions and will show the joint between these two sec-

A foundation is a mediator between the loads of the

tions along the exterior ground level.

house and the soil on which the foundation rests. A

POST-TENSION SLABS are a newer type of slab

well-designed foundation keeps a house’s wood

that has steel cables running through tubes inside

underpinning above the soil so it doesn’t rot or get

the concrete. The nuts at the cable ends are tightened

eaten by insects. And it should be sturdy enough to

after the concrete hardens. Post-tension slabs use less

keep walls plumb and floors level despite wind,

concrete and are considered lighter and stronger than

water, soil movement, and earthquakes.

older types. The main rule with these foundations is

never to cut into the slab without an engineer telling

FOUNDATION TYPES

you where the cables are located.

Foundations should be appropriate to the site. For

Although shallow, the large footprint of a slab

example, on sandy well-drained soil, unmortared

sometimes makes it the only feasible foundation on

stone foundations can last for centuries. But an un-

soils with weak load-bearing capacity. Because slabs

stable clay hillside may dictate an engineered founda-

sit on grade (at ground level), their drainage systems

tion on piers extending down to bedrock.

must be meticulously detailed.

F O U N DA T I O N S , B A S E M E N T S , A N D C R AW L S PA C E S 91

FOUNDATION TYPES

SLAB ON

T (SPREAD)

GRADE

FOUNDATION

GRADE

BEAM

Concrete

pier

DRIVEN STEEL

WITH PAD

Bedrock

INTERIOR

FOUNDATION

ELEMENTS

Girder

Post (column)

Soil conditions and intended

function (basement or crawl

Pad

space) usually decide what

foundation type is used.

92 FOUNDATIONS, BASEMENTS, AND CRAWL SPACES

GRADE BEAMS with drilled concrete piers are

the premier foundation for most foundations built on

steep slopes. These foundations get their name be-

cause pier holes are typically drilled to bearing strata

(bedrock). This foundation type is unsurpassed for

lateral stability. Also, concrete piers have a greater

cross section than driven steel piers and hence

greater skin friction against the soil, so they’re much

less likely to migrate. The stability of concrete piers is enhanced by steel-reinforced concrete-grade beams,

placed slightly below grade, connecting the tops of

the piers together structurally. Some older 1970s-era

Differential settlement has caused part of this founda-

pier foundations did not have grade beams, and the

tion to fail, creating a large crack that runs through

piers in some cases moved independently.

the foundation wall and the stucco exterior. Have a

structural engineer identify the cause(s) of the failure

DRIVEN STEEL PILINGS are used to anchor

and design a replacement.

foundations on steep or unstable soils. Driven to

stable soils or bedrock and capped, steel pilings can

tion settle roughly the same amount—cracks will be

support heavy vertical loads. There are various types

superficial and nothing to worry about.

of steel pilings, including helical piers, which look

When the settlement is uneven—some parts of

like giant auger bits and are screwed in with hydrau-

the foundation sink more than others—the ensuing

lic motors, and push piers, which are hollow and can

cracks tend to be larger and the sides of the cracks

be pushed in, strengthened with reinforcing bar, and

don’t line up. In addition, floors may slope, win-

filled with concrete or epoxy.

dow and door openings may go out of square, and

INTERIOR FOUNDATION ELEMENTS include

in extreme cases, walls may go out of plumb. This

girders, posts or columns, and pads. These elements

differential settlement can be a cause for concern

are most often used in conjunction with T founda-

and should be assessed by a structural engineer, and

tions. Girders typically shorten the distances joists

perhaps a soils engineer.

must span, support load-bearing walls above, and re-

It is not unusual to see floors that are higher at the

duce some of the loading on perimeter foundations.

center and lower around the building perimeter. This

Posts or columns, in turn, provide support beneath a

is typically caused by damp expansive soils in the

girder. Adjustable steel floor jacks or nonadjustable

center or soft wet perimeter soils. It is almost never a

Lally columns are common in some areas with base-

good plan to try and level such a house, as that would

ments. They are strong and can be adjusted periodi-

cause major damage to the interiors.

cally as needed. Like perimeter foundations, interior

Floors sloping less than 1⁄8 in. per 1 ft. are usually

elements must be sized for the loads they bear.

not noticeable, whereas everyone can see floors that

STRUCTURAL SETTLEMENT

slope more than 1⁄4 in. per 1 ft. Eventually with long-

All house foundations settle somewhat. The degree

term settlement it may become necessary to resup-

of settlement depends on the type of soil, how much

port the foundation and level the floors.

the lot slopes, the amount of surface or subsurface

In Chapter 1, the first step of the inspection

water, erosion in a neighboring lot, seismic activity,

focused on soil and site conditions. Some soil types

and so on. As a foundation settles, it will crack. If the are more stable and drain better than others and, in

settlement is slight or even—all parts of the founda-

general, the soil of a level lot will exert less lateral

F O U N DA T I O N S , B A S E M E N T S , A N D C R AW L S PA C E S 93

U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) topographical maps

show streams, lakes, floodplains, and other natural

features that could have an impact on a site. Local

GETTING A SECOND

building and land-use departments also have maps

(AND THIRD) OPINION

indicating watersheds, slide zones, contaminated

soil, and seismic hazard zones.

Foundation issues can be complex.

So before homeowners start extensive remedial

Sloped building lots tend to magnify the problems

work, such as replacing failed foundation sections

of unstable soil types. If there is a subsurface layer

or adding a second story, they should have a

of clay, for example, prolonged rain may saturate it

structural engineer evaluate the foundation. In

and cause it to slip. Because it is almost impossible

addition, they should bring in a soils engineer if

the site slopes steeply or if the foundation shows

to design a foundation massive enough to withstand

distress signs, such as bowing, cracks that go

the lateral forces of a hillside of sodden, sliding dirt, through the wall, cracks whose sides don’t line up,

some sites just shouldn’t be built on.

differential (uneven) settlement, or chronic wetness.

The good news in this otherwise sobering

Engineers can also assess potential concerns such

review is that if a house is older (at least 30 years or

as slide zones, soil load-bearing capacity, and

seasonal shifting.

40 years old), it has probably done most of the set-

tling it’s going to do. Have an engineer who knows

the area assess the house’s cracks and out-of-square

trim to make sure the site is stable and the founda-

tion is sound.

(side) pressure on foundation walls than soil on a

sloping lot.

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

Foundations whose footings rest on bedrock will

■

■

What is the soil composition of the lot? Is the lot

settle least. Footings on sandy soil tend to settle

flat or sloping?

evenly and quickly because sand particles are

■

■

What type of foundation(s) does the house have?

relatively large compared to the voids (open spaces)

(Homeowners may need to consult the original

between them. Water drains well through sandy soil,

construction document or building-department

records to find out.)

in part because sand doesn’t absorb it.

■

■

How old is the foundation? Have foundation sec-

Clay soil, on the other hand, absorbs water dra-

tions been added to the original footprint?

matically, expanding as much as 50% in volume dur-

■

■

Are there signs of settlement such as cracked

ing wet seasons, contracting a similar amount during

foundation walls, eroded footings, out-of-plumb

dry months. Consequently, foundations on predomi-

walls, or out-of-square windows and doors?

nantly clay soil settle over many years, with cracks in

finish surfaces spreading and shrinking seasonally.

Dampness and Seepage

Sometimes called adobe soil, it has a distinctive al-

Damp basements and crawl spaces can have numer-

ligator pattern when dry (see the photo on p. 105).

ous causes, so let’s start with seasonal condensation,

Soil with a large percentage of organic matter will

move on to excess interior moisture, then to common

also absorb moisture, but if it is otherwise sandy,

and easily correctable exterior causes, and conclude

the organic portion will decompose and the site will

with seepage, in which water migrates through

eventually stabilize.

foundation walls and slabs because of saturated soil

The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) has

or high subsurface water.

detailed soil maps for most locales. In addition,

94 FOUNDATIONS, BASEMENTS, AND CRAWL SPACES

as water vapor condenses on the A/C unit’s evaporator

coils, drips into a drain pan, and runs outside. If inte-

rior surfaces are still too damp, the air smells musty,

or mold is visible, adding a dedicated dehumidifier or

two is frequently the next step.

When you see water coursing down a concrete

foundation wall it’s hard to believe that it’s not seep-

age from underground streams or the first stages of

Noah’s flood. One test of where the water is coming

from is to duct-tape a 6-in.-sq. of aluminum foil to

the foundation wall and leave it there for a day. If the

front of the foil is dry and the back is wet, supposedly

In this basement, wetness is caused by seepage along

wall–floor joints and leaky plumbing connections. The

that proves that water is seeping through the wall. On

efflorescence on the walls suggests persistent seepage

a hot, humid day, however, more likely you’ll find that

through the walls as well.

both sides are wet.

To learn more about reducing dampness in crawl

CONDENSATION

spaces, see p. 106.

Cool air can’t hold as much water vapor as warm air,

EXCESS INTERIOR MOISTURE

so any time warm, moist air comes in contact with

Cooking and bathing generate an enormous amount

cooler surfaces, water vapor will condense into a

of water vapor inside a house. The simple and not

liquid. Because the earth has a year-round average

very expensive solution to excess interior moisture

temperature of 55°F, subterranean spaces such as

is adding range hoods or bath exhaust fans over the

basements and crawl spaces are generally cooler than

appliance or fixture generating the moisture. In

outside air temperatures in the spring and summer.

bathrooms, vent fans should be located as close to

So that's when condensation is at its peak.

the shower as is practicable.

The hotter the outside air (and hence the more

Warm, moist air tends to rise, so excess interior

moisture it can hold) and the cooler the surface, the

moisture often migrates into the attic, where it can

greater the condensation. Cold water pipes, toilet

cause mold, rot, and in cold climates, ice dams. But

tanks, A/C coils, and uninsulated foundation walls

a certain amount of water vapor will find its way to

will be slick with condensation on really hot days.

a basement or a crawl space. Exhaust fans can help

Opening windows to increase ventilation, and

throughout the house.

evaporation, can carry away some of the dampness.

HVAC ducts that come apart or split can also dump

And many homeowners favor opening windows at

moisture under the house, in addition to wasting

night to admit cooler air and then shutting windows

energy. This is true for both insulated and uninsu-

and pulling shades at dawn to conserve the cool dur-

lated ducts. While it’s possible to see disconnected

ing the day. Whole-house fans and attic vents (p. 80)

sections during a general inspection, it usually takes

are also helpful, to a degree.

pressurized duct testing—as part of a complete en-

But in hot, humid climates—say, Louisiana in

ergy audit—to locate all duct leaks comprehensively.

August—there’s so much moisture in the air that

opening windows only admits more water. Shutting

COMMON EXTERIOR CAUSES

all the windows and cranking up the air-conditioner

Basement and crawl space dampness is often caused

is the preferred way to deal with sultry weather. Air-

by water collecting next to the foundation because of

conditioners also dehumidify interior air somewhat

F O U N DA T I O N S , B A S E M E N T S , A N D C R AW L S PA C E S 95

COMMON CAUSES OF DAMP BASEMENTS

Clogged

gutters

Missing

downspout

Downspout

empties

too close to

house

Soil

improperly

Cracked

graded

foundation

Blocked or

Undrained

damaged

window well

perimeter

drain

causes that can easily be detected and corrected by

■

■

Lawn sprinklers aimed at the house can soak the

homeowners. These common exterior causes include

siding and the soil. Leaky outdoor spigots can, in a

the following:

month, dump hundreds of gallons of water next to

■■ Gutters and downspouts that are clogged, dam-

the foundation.

aged, deteriorated, or missing. Instead of direct-

■

■

Basement window wells will collect water if they

ing roof runoff away from the house, they dump it

lack drains or rain deflectors.

right next to the foundation.

■

■

Blocked perimeter drains. If downspouts terminate WATER SEEPAGE

into a subsurface perimeter drainage system, it

Seepage refers to water that enters through floors

should be flushed with water to be sure it is working.

or foundation walls. It may rise up through the

■■ Improper grading that slopes toward the house.

crawl space soil or a concrete basement floor or seep

Soil next to the house should be graded so that it

through joints where walls meet floors. Seepage

slopes away from the structure and then regraded,

tends to follows a path of least resistance. If a con-

as needed, if that soil subsides or becomes leveled

crete foundation has oversize holes for sewer pipes

by foot traffic.

or electrical conduits, water may seep through those

■■ Walkways or patios that slope incorrectly toward holes first; similarly, concrete form ties that rust out

the house have often settled unevenly and will fun-

may provide seepage points. As you inspect founda-

nel large amounts of water toward the foundation.

tion walls, note water stains or rust stains.

96 FOUNDATIONS, BASEMENTS, AND CRAWL SPACES

Two strikes and you’re wet. This downspout is dump-

Basement floors below ground level are very suscep-

ing roof runoff next to the foundation and a sidewalk

tible to water entry. Hydrostatic pressure underneath

tilting toward the house is helping to keep it there.

is forcing water up through cracks in the concrete slab.

If differential settlement causes portions of a foun-

dation to crack, water may seep through those cracks,

especially if they run through the foundation. How

much seepage occurs also depends on the hydrostatic

pressure—the pressure that water exerts—on slabs

and foundation walls. This pressure may come from

a high water table, subterranean runoff on a sloping

lot, soil saturated by prolonged rains, or some combi-

nation of these causes.

One home inspector’s task is to observe obvious

seepage points. Note discolored surfaces (wet con-

Seepage is quite obvious along the base of these walls.

crete will be darker), puddles, wet areas where walls

If you inspect during a dry period and suspect periodic

meet floor, and larger areas of standing water. Note

seepage, remove a furnace access panel and look for

rust inside the housing.

if wetness is localized along one wall (likely adjacent

to an uphill slope) or if wetness is widespread. Floor

drains with standing water or sump pumps are other

remove the access panel at the bottom and, using

obvious symptoms. Note too where sump pumps

your flashlight, look for rust inside the appliance,

discharge: Is it well away from the house?

which may indicate periodic flooding.

Signs of past wetness may be more elusive. In ad-

The most cost-effective way to correct seepage

dition to rust stains or water stains, look for chalky

problems is to start with the simplest, least expensive

efflorescence where water has leeched mineral salts

remedy, see if that works, and then, if it doesn’t, move

from the concrete. Around the base of foundation

on to the next. Such a progression might be (1) fill

walls, look for silt residue. Look for deterioration

foundation holes and cracks with hydraulic cement,

around the base of wood posts or rust at the bot-

injection epoxy gel, or polyurethane foam, (2) seal

tom of metal columns. (Frequently, the floor around

the entire interior surface of foundation walls with a

column pads is cracked, which can also admit water.)

cement-based or epoxy sealing, (3) excavate the soil

If there is a water heater or furnace in the basement,

around the outside of the building and install

F O U N DA T I O N S , B A S E M E N T S , A N D C R AW L S PA C E S 97

■

■

waterproofing to the exterior of foundation walls,

If basement walls are wet to the touch, is the

ground adjacent to the house saturated? (See

(4) install perimeter drains around the founda-

“Common Exterior Causes” on p. 95.)

tion if none presently exist, and (5) install swale

■

■

Is there standing water in floor drains and exte-

drains uphill to intercept runoff before it gets to the

rior stairwells? (Flush the drains to see if they are

foundation. The first two steps can be attempted by a

merely clogged.)

diligent homeowner; if hydrostatic pressures are not

■

■

Is there efflorescence or a silty residue where

too great, those fixes may suffice. The last three steps

floor slabs meet foundation walls?

will be very costly and typically require input from

■

■

When you remove water heater or furnace access

structural and soil engineers.

panels, can you see rust along the bottom of the

An alternative is to dig a trench in the basement

appliance housing?

■

■

floor at the base of the leaky wall, install perforated

Is water seeping through foundation walls, espe-

cially on the uphill wall of a sloping lot?

drainage piping in gravel, and run the piping down-

■

■

Is water seeping from horizontal cracks in foun-

hill to the exterior or to a sump. This method can

dation walls that are bowing inward? (See “Read-

create a relatively dry floor at lower cost. Basement

ing Foundation Cracks,” below.)

rooms that are used for storage can be kept much

■

■

Is the area subject to periodic flooding? (The

dryer by adding a dehumidifier appliance.

house may be in a floodplain.)

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

Concrete Foundations

■■ Does excessive wetness occur most often on

Concrete is a mixture of portland cement, water, and

hot, humid days and does it seem limited to cold

aggregate (sand and gravel). When water is added to

water pipes and cool concrete foundation walls?

cement, a chemical reaction, called hydration, takes

(It’s probably normal condensation.)

place, and the mixture hardens around the aggre-

■■ Does the area under the house smell musty or do

gate, binding it fast. Water makes concrete workable,

you see mold? Are there doors and windows that

can be opened to increase ventilation?

and cement makes it strong. The lower the water to

■■ Are there vent fans in all bathrooms and a range

cement ratio, the stronger the concrete.

hood in the kitchen?

In addition to getting the right mix and consis-

tency, it’s essential that the concrete be correctly

consolidated as it is poured into forms, specifically,

that the concrete be vibrated to drive out air bubbles

and voids before it has hardened. If this is not done,

WATERPROOFING MEMBRANES

finish surfaces will be more likely to crack and spall

(flake), steel reinforcing bars in the concrete will

Because concrete is porous, prolonged

be more likely to corrode, and water seepage will be

hydrostatic pressure can cause water to permeate

more likely to penetrate foundation walls.

undamaged concrete slabs and walls whose exterior

surfaces have not been waterproofed. Because

READING FOUNDATION CRACKS

waterproofing membranes terminate near grade,

As noted earlier, all buildings settle. If the settlement they may be visible as a tar-like substance or as

is more or less uniform, the stresses on the founda-

elastomeric sheets near the top of the foundation.

If a membrane is not visible, you can dig down

tion will be distributed evenly. When the settlement

6 in. to 12 in. to unearth its upper edge or ask to

is differential, the stresses will be uneven, some-

see foundation details on construction documents.

times causing minor annoyances such as sticking

windows and doors or sloping floors. Over time, such

98 FOUNDATIONS, BASEMENTS, AND CRAWL SPACES

STEEL REINFORCEMENT

AND FASTENERS

Steel reinforcing bar (rebar) carries

and distributes loads within a concrete foundation,

transferring the loads from high-pressure areas to

lower-pressure areas. It thereby lessens the likeli-

hood of point failure, either from point loading

(concentrated weight) above or from lateral soil and

water pressures. Anchor bolts or threaded rods,

tied to rebar, bolt down mudsills and thus attach

the overlying structure to the foundation. There

also are a number of metal connectors—such as

A crash course in cracks. The rough horizontal bands

Simpson® Strong-Tie®—that tie joists to girders;

of this foundation were caused by not vibrating the

keep support posts from drifting; and hold down

wet concrete to drive out voids and air bubbles. Shal-

mudsills, sole plates, and the like. These connectors

low cracks throughout the surface are cosmetic and

are particularly important in high-wind and earth-

nothing to worry about. The large vertical crack, how-

ever, runs through the foundation and may indicate a

quake areas.

failed footing. It should be filled and monitored to see

if it is active.

settlement usually stabilizes, and though the floors

joints are marginally weaker than concrete placed

will still slant or the windows stick, those conditions

in one continuous pour but are rarely a structural

probably won’t get any worse.

problem.

■

■

Similarly, all foundations crack, due to settlement

Narrow vertical or diagonal surface cracks that are

or shrinkage. Most cracks are short, superficial, and

roughly parallel are likely caused by foundation

not anything to worry about. Moderate (1⁄4-in.-wide)

settlement or soil movement but are probably not

or larger cracks that run through the foundation

serious. If water runs from cracks after a storm,

may indicate ongoing differential settlement and

they can be filled with an epoxy cement, then

may need to be repaired later on. But there is no way

coated with a sealant.

■

■

to determine in one inspection if the settlement is

Wide cracks in foundations less than 2 ft. tall

active or if a crack will grow. The best way to predict

indicate little or no steel reinforcement, a common

future movement is to monitor the number and size

failing of older homes in temperate climates.

of cracks over time.

Unreinforced foundations are more likely to crack.

■

■

As you review the following descriptions, keep

Large (1⁄2-in. or wider) vertical cracks through the

in mind that the larger, more dramatic cracks are

foundation that are wider at the top usually mean

relatively rare.

that one end of the foundation is sinking—

■■ Short, meandering cracks are usually caused by

typically at a corner with poor drainage or a miss-

slight shrinkage as concrete sets. This is a common

ing downspout.

■

■

condition, nothing to worry about.

Large vertical cracks through the foundation that

■■ Surface cracks or welts (slight ridges) running

are wider at the bottom are usually caused by foot-

horizontally the length of a wall, often with ag-

ings that are too small for the load. It’s common to

gregate exposed along the edges, are cold joints

replace or reinforce sections that have failed.

caused by separate concrete pours. Walls with cold

F O U N DA T I O N S , B A S E M E N T S , A N D C R AW L S PA C E S 99

Horizontal cracking and inward bowing suggest satu-

Wide cracks in foundations typically indicate little

rated soil pressure and possibly ground movement.

or no steel reinforcement, a common failing of older

Because these cracks have been filled and the bottom

homes in temperate climates.

filling is cracking again, the foundation wall may be

failing.

■■ Horizontal through-cracks that leak after heavy

OTHER CONCRETE CONCERNS

rains, often found with a concrete driveway that

In addition to cracking, you may observe the follow-

slopes toward the house, may have been caused by

ing issues.

heavy trucks compacting the soil and water col-

EFFLORESCENCE is a white powdery deposit

lecting along foundation walls. This is typically a

on masonry or concrete that has been in place for a

new-house condition. Call in a structural engineer

while. Efflorescence is, essentially, mineral salts in

on this one.

the concrete that have been brought to the surface by

■■ Horizontal cracks though a concrete foundation

water migrating through and drying on foundation

midway up the wall, with the wall bowing in, are most walls. Minor efflorescence is common even in new

often caused by lateral pressure from water-soaked

construction, but substantial efflorescence indicates

soil. This condition is most commonly seen on

defective drainage. Adequate exterior waterproofing

uphill walls on sloping lots. VERY SERIOUS: The

is one way to prevent efflorescence.

bowing may indicate that the foundation is failing.

Another approach is to apply a waterproof coating

Consult a structural engineer at once.

on the inside of the wall to prevent the salt crystals

■■ In cold climates, horizontal cracks through the

from forming. Older homes often used parging

foundation, often accompanied by a concrete floor

(applying a plaster coating) on the inside of concrete

that is crowning and cracking, are usually caused

walls to reduce or eliminate efflorescence. Over

by frost heaving when footings are not below the

time, this parging eventually tends to come loose and

frost line. Consult a structural engineer.

fall off.

■■ An older concrete foundation that is rotating

SPALLING OR FLAKING SURFACES on rela-

probably lacks reinforcing steel or footings that

tively new foundations are usually caused by incor-

are deep enough. The weight of the building on

rectly installed concrete, especially a failure to vibrate the outside edge of the foundation wall is causing

the concrete and drive out air bubbles and voids

it to lean. Poor drainage can exacerbate the lean-

before the concrete sets. If wall forms were not

ing. A structural engineer will assess the condi-

coated with a release agent, the concrete may stick to

tion and recommend reinforcing or replacing the

the forms, creating surface imperfections when the

foundation.

forms are removed. In some cases, aggregate in the

100 FOUNDATIONS, BASEMENTS, AND CRAWL SPACES

Efflorescence deposits are mineral salts driven to the

This anchor bolt retrofitted to secure a mudsill would

surface by water. Strong, dense concrete is not dam-

not do much good in an earthquake because the old

aged by such deposits, though they can cause porous

concrete foundation would crumble. This retrofit is not

old concrete to crumble.

very effective.

concrete mixture will be visible. Voids should be

ticularly susceptible to moisture entry and will often

filled, surfaces troweled smooth and allowed to dry,

crumble and deteriorate with age.

and then sealed to prevent water entry.

NOTE : Some building departments do not permit

RUSTY BARS VISIBLE in foundation walls may

the installation of earthquake bolts into poor-quality

be caused by a concrete mix that was too dry to flow

concrete; to seismically reinforce such buildings,

around the rebar, insufficient vibration to drive out

it may be necessary to install new concrete founda-

voids, rebar placed too close to the surface, surface

tion walls.

spalling, or moisture and mineral salts that corroded

the rebar. If the damage is extensive, a foundation

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

specialist should assess the foundation; otherwise,

■

■

Is efflorescence present on concrete foundation

loose rust should be removed and the void filled with

walls? How widespread is it?

an epoxy cement patch.

■

■

Are cracks, if any, mostly short and superficial?

CRUMBLING OLDER FOUNDATIONS may

■

■

Are concrete surfaces flaking or spalling? Do

have been weakened by prolonged moisture penetra-

voids need to be filled and sealed?

tion. What began as efflorescence developed into

■

■

Do any cracks run through the wall (through-

widespread mineral salt crystals that expanded and

cracks)? Are their sides more or less parallel?

caused surface crumbling. With continued mois-

Or do their sides not line up, indicating different

settlement of the foundation?

ture penetration over many years, the concrete may

■

■

If there are vertical through-cracks, are cracks

deteriorate to the point where replacement becomes

wider at the top or the bottom?

necessary.

■

■

Are there horizontal through-cracks in the foun-

POOR-QUALITY CONCRETE is found in many

dation? If so, do foundation walls bow inward

older foundations where too much aggregate was

along those cracks?

used, which makes concrete porous and weak. In

■

■

Are older foundation walls rotating? Are walls

some coastal areas, round beach sand was used

above rotating foundations out of plumb?

instead of sharp sand from a quarry; cement adheres

■

■

Are older foundation walls crumbling? Is rusty

better to sharp edges. Poor-quality concrete is par-

reinforcing steel visible?

F O U N DA T I O N S , B A S E M E N T S , A N D C R AW L S PA C E S 101

This concrete block wall does not have a lintel across

Portions of this brick foundation have been parged to

its opening. The cracking appears relatively minor

protect its mortar joints and reduce seepage through

but its size should be monitored to determine if the

the walls. Minor wetness aside, it’s in decent shape.

stresses are active.

Concrete Block and Brick

joints, widespread seepage, and, in time, walls that

Foundations

bulge inward.

Concrete has been around for thousands of years—it

It is possible to improve the lateral strength of

was used for the Roman aqueducts, for example—

concrete block by inserting rebar through block cores

but using concrete in residential foundations didn’t

and then filling those cores with concrete, but such

become widespread in eastern states till there were

assemblies never get close to the lateral strength of

pumper trucks to deliver the stuff. Foundations in

poured concrete. As is true with poured concrete

western states were often poured from wheelbarrows

foundations, concrete block walls with horizontal

before 1900. Consequently, many houses before the

cracks that bulge inward are particularly at risk, espe-

1940s had concrete block, brick, or stone foundations.

cially if block walls are not reinforced with steel. If

walls bulge more than 1 in. from vertical and there’s

LITTLE RESISTANCE TO

a chronic water problem, foundation failure may be

LATERAL PRESSURES

imminent.

Concrete block and brick foundations have decent

load-bearing strength but little resistance to lateral

CAPPING FOUNDATIONS

pressures. The mortar joints are their weak points

Concrete caps are sometimes installed on top of an

and the most likely place for water to enter. So when

existing foundation wall by pest-control companies

you inspect these foundations, pay close attention to

to prevent moisture entry and damage in the wood

mortar joints.

framing above the foundation. This usually happens

Concrete block and brick foundations do best on

when an old mudsill has rotted out because it was

flat lots with good drainage. It is extremely unusual

too close to the soil. The substructure is temporarily

to see block or brick foundations on sloping lots for

supported by shoring, the rotted framing is cut back,

the simple reason that they don’t work very well.

a cap is poured over the old foundation, and a new sill

Where block and brick foundations have been in-

is installed, at least 8 in. above grade.

stalled on clay soil that becomes saturated, they often

Modern foundation caps are typically steel

develop efflorescence, zigzag cracks along mortar

reinforced and should improve the strength of the

102 FOUNDATIONS, BASEMENTS, AND CRAWL SPACES

foundation system. They should not, however, be

Although building codes now require that con-

considered as strong as a new foundation. In many

crete floors contain steel reinforcement, typically a

cases, the old foundation is a shallow one, made of

heavy wire mesh, many older floors are unreinforced.

brick or unreinforced concrete.

Concrete floors without reinforcement often crack in

Because the old foundation is often in bad shape,

response to settlement, water pressure beneath the

it will often be parged with stucco or mortar, which

slab, and, in cold regions, frost heaves. If the water

provides some protection and helps keep insects

pressure is great, concrete floors can buckle upward.

out. If you are able to inspect the old foundation,

So in addition to noting cracks, an inspector should

chances are you will find mortar joints that are soft

look for signs of chronic moisture.

and crumbling. With a little more digging, you will

Cracks that show vertical displacement, where one

likely find that the foundation walls have no footing

side of the crack is higher than the other, indicate

underneath.

the absence of steel reinforcing. Concrete with steel

(Too small or missing footings are a prime cause

mesh or bars inside will bend at any cracks.

of zigzag cracks, as the foundation settles unevenly.)

READING CRACKS, LOOKING FOR WATER

Most capped, shallow foundation should be re-

Concrete floors frequently crack and leak where they

placed soon. Till that happens, homeowners should

meet foundation walls. The joint is inherently weak

maintain gutters and downspouts so that the ground

because it is a cold joint between two different pours.

around the house stays as dry as possible.

And if the walls are experiencing hydrostatic pres-

sure, the wall–floor joint is typically a path of least

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

resistance. Look there for water stains, efflorescence,

■■ Is there efflorescence on concrete block or

and silt residue. Caulking the joint with polyurethane

brick foundation walls? Is the area under the

will stop water to a degree, while allowing expansion

house damp? Is the ground next to the founda-

around floor edges.

tion damp?

■■

Concrete floors frequently crack around concrete

Are there zigzag cracks along mortar joints?

■■

pads or pier blocks that support wooden posts or

Do cracks run across block faces and walls bulge

inward?

■■ Do walls bulge more than 1 in. from plumb (verti-

cal)? Are there signs of chronic wetness?

■■ If the foundation has been capped, try to deter-

mine the material of the original foundation un-

derneath. In what condition are its mortar joints?

Are footings present?

Concrete Floors

Concrete floors will manifest many of the same

symptoms as concrete walls, although, of course,

floors are not stressed by tons of saturated earth

pressing against them. That noted, start your inspec-

tion by recording the general condition of the floors:

The soil below this unreinforced slab may be an expan-

flaking, spalling, efflorescence, and, of course,

sive type whose upward pressure made the concrete

lift and crack. Such cracks can be ground smooth to

cracks. Shallow cracks are typically shrinkage and no

eliminate the trip hazard, but in time this condition will concern.

likely reoccur. Replacement is the only sure cure.

F O U N DA T I O N S , B A S E M E N T S , A N D C R AW L S PA C E S 103

metal columns. Pads should be poured independently

problem is seasonal, many people simply attach a

of floors, but that doesn’t always happen. When the

50-ft. garden hose and run it out a basement window.

pads become point loaded by a load-bearing post or

In either case, the pipe should discharge the water at

column, the pads sink and cracking occurs. This is

least 20 ft. from the house, preferably downhill and

usually just a cosmetic issue unless it becomes a

not directly into a neighbor’s property. Moisture-

water entry point, in which case it should be filled

sensing alarms can be installed to warn of pump

with an epoxy cement patch.

failure.

Older concrete floors without a vapor barrier under-

Sump pumps need not raise red flags for inspec-

neath will wick moisture if the soil is persistently

tors. If the pump works, it may be removing seasonal

damp. Concrete is porous, so this is normal. If you

seepage just fine. If there is no water in the sump

are inspecting under the house after a period of dry

pit when you inspect the house, use a garden hose

weather, look for rust at the bottom of metal columns

to fill it. (Never run a sump pump without water in

or rot at the base of wood posts. Remove the access

the pit.) Activate the pump and see if it empties the

panel of a water heater or furnace to see if there is

pit. You should also note where the discharged water

rust inside the appliance housing. And if you entered

goes. It’s smart for homeowners to keep a spare

the basement by wooden stairs, look behind the stair

pump on hand.

stringers and the bottom tread for water stains, mold,

FLOOR DRAINS AND TRAPS. Most basement

rot, and the like. Wood that rests directly on concrete

floors have drains at low points to facilitate normal

will almost always wick moisture if it is present.

cleaning and to drain seasonal seepage.

As you inspect floor drains, sniff them at a distance

SUMP PUMPS

to see if there is a sewer smell. If a floor drain emits

Sump pumps are a good way to remove water once

an odor of sewer gas, it may be connected to plumb-

it gets into a basement. Sump pumps are usually

ing drains and the drain trap may have dried out. The

installed at a low point in the floor where water

drain trap can be primed by pouring water into the

collects, though the pump should not be located in

a trafficked area where someone could trip over it.

Sump pits should be lined with a permeable liner

that allows water to seep in while keeping soil out.

Though pits are usually 18 in. to 24 in. across, their

depth varies according to the type of pump used.

There are two types of pumps. Pedestal sump

pumps stand upright in the pit. They are water-cooled

and have ball floats that turn the pump on and off.

Submersible sump pumps, on the other hand,

have sealed, oil-cooled motors, so they tend to be

quieter, more durable, and more expensive. And

because they are submerged, they can be covered so

nothing falls in.

The type of discharge pipe depends on whether the

pump is permanent or temporary. Permanent pumps

should have 11⁄2-in. rigid PVC discharge pipes with a

Running a garden hose into a floor drain can be a good

check valve near the bottom to prevent expelled water

test to ensure the drain is functional and to locate the

from siphoning back down into the pit. If the water

drain outflow location.

104 FOUNDATIONS, BASEMENTS, AND CRAWL SPACES

■

■

drain; pouring a small amount of mineral oil into the

If there is a sump pump, is it functioning? Where

does the discharge pipe empty?

trap on top of the water will reduce evaporation.

■

■

Are there sewer smells in any part of the base-

One way to check and see if a floor drain has been

ment floor?

improperly connected to the sewer system is to run

■

■

Do floor drains empty when you flush them with

water in a nearby sink, or ask someone to flush a

water?

toilet while you watch or listen closely for any water

■

■

If there is a waste cleanout in a pit, is the pit wet?

flow in the drain.

Is the cleanout capped?

Next, flush the drain for a minute or two to make

sure it is not clogged. If you inspect after dry weather, Crawl Spaces

there is no way to know if the drain is adequately

Crawl spaces are well named. They tend to be dark,

removing seasonal flooding, except to look for

dank, dirt-covered areas only a few feet high—if that.

water stains, residual silt, mold, or rotted wood, as

Minimum FHA standards for crawl spaces are 18 in.

described earlier.

from the bottom of floor joists to the ground, and

Some basements have a cleanout fitting to provide

12 in. from the underside of girders. If there is not

access to the house’s main drain. When this cleanout

enough headroom to crawl around the perimeter, use

is in the floor, it is typically in a pit below the floor your flashlight to inspect it from the access opening.

slab. The cleanout should be plugged with a cap and

Suit up before you go in, as you may encounter

no sewer smells should be present. The pit should

critters and toxic chemical preservatives such as

be dry. A wet pit indicates a high water table or a

copper naphthenate. Your gear should include a hat,

cracked drainpipe, in which case you probably will

heavy-duty leather boots, sturdy coveralls, kneepads,

smell sewer gas. If the cleanout cap is missing, note

a tight-fitting mask with a HEPA filter, and heavy-

it in your report. Now and then homeowners remove

duty leather gloves over a pair of rubber ones (see

cleanout caps to alleviate basement flooding (or so

the photo on p. 10). This is another area where it’s they think!), but doing so violates the plumbing code

important to have had a tetanus shot.

and creates a potential health hazard.

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

■■ What’s the overall condition of the concrete

floor? Are there wet spots, efflorescence, flaking,

or cracking?

■■ Is the concrete floor cracking and crumbling

throughout? Can you see the earth through some

of the larger cracks? (The concrete is probably

not reinforced with steel.)

■■ Is there cracking where concrete floors meet

foundation walls? Do you also see water stains,

efflorescence, silt residue, or seepage along

that joint?

■■ Are there any signs of prolonged wetness such

as water-stained stairs or wood posts or rust at

the bottom of metal columns, water heaters, or

furnace housings?

You wouldn’t know it in the summer, but this adobe

soil can absorb so much water that it can raise a build-

ing. In most areas its movement is relatively minor,

though cracked basement floors are common.

F O U N DA T I O N S , B A S E M E N T S , A N D C R AW L S PA C E S 105

DEALING WITH DAMP

invariably condenses on the cooler surfaces of the

Crawl spaces are often damp. The main causes of that

crawl space, leading to mold and worse.

dampness are moisture rising from the soil; warm,

Many building scientists (see www.buildingscience

moist air condensing on the cool surfaces under the

.com, for example) now recommend that the crawl

house; not enough ventilation; vegetation too close

space become conditioned space. In other words,

to the house; and improper surface drainage, such as

close the vents, cover the ground with a sturdy vapor

clogged, damaged, or missing gutters and down-

barrier, insulate crawl space walls, seal air leaks, and

spouts. Less often, leaking water supply pipes or split

install a dehumidifier.

HVAC ducts may add moisture as well; note leaky

SEALING CRAWL SPACES

pipes or split ducts in your report.

To seal crawl spaces, advocates suggest first raking

In such a dark, moist environment, mold and rot

the floor to remove debris and sharp rocks, which

flourish and insects thrive. As you inspect the crawl

could puncture a 6-mil plastic vapor barrier. Heavy

space, scrutinize wood framing and probe any areas

sheeting will last longer: commercial waterproofing

that look suspect. Mudsills, pony-wall studs, and

firms, such as Basement Systems®, use 20-mil poly-

wood posts are particularly prone to rot if they make

ester cord–reinforced sheeting, which can withstand

contact with the earth. Note signs of insect infesta-

workers crawling and objects stored on it. Then 2-in.-

tion, discussed at greater length on p. 112.

thick EPS foam panels are glued over vent openings,

Also note if crawl space walls or floor joists above

using a spray foam or a polyurethane sealant that

are insulated. Insulation batts may have foil or paper

adheres well to masonry.

facing or may be unfaced. If faced batts are installed,

In a 1,000-sq.-ft. rectangular crawl space without

the paper facing or foil facing must be placed up, to-

jogs, it typically takes five large sheets of polyeth-

ward the living spaces. If the foil or paper facing faces ylene to isolate the space: a single floor sheet that

down (toward the ground), it is incorrectly installed.

runs about 1 ft. up onto walls; and four wall pieces

Finally, note unsupported electrical wires, exposed

that overlap at the corners and the floor by 1 ft. and

wiring, and inadequately supported plumbing pipes

run up the walls to a height 2 in. to 3 in. below the

and sagging heating ducts.

mudsills. (Mudsills are left exposed so they can be

VENTILATING CRAWL SPACES . . .

inspected periodically.) Polyurethane caulk attaches

OR NOT

the tops of sheets to crawl space walls; if the walls

Though an inspector’s job is to describe conditions

are dirty, they should be wire-brushed first to ensure

rather than prescribe remedies, you may want to

a good seal.

share building scientists’ latest thinking on reducing

crawl space moisture.

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

To disperse moisture, building codes typically

■

■

Before you enter, can you see damp or wet

prescribe 1 sq. ft. of screened vents for each 150 sq. ft.

ground and substandard electrical wiring? If so,

of dirt floor, or 1 sq. ft. of vents for every 1,500 sq. ft.

do not enter the crawl space.

of floors covered with a soil vapor barrier. To achieve

■

■

Is the crawl space vented or closed? If vented,

cross-ventilation, vent openings are distributed

do vent screens cover all openings?

equally along the length of at least two opposite sides;

■

■

If there is a dirt floor, is it covered with a plastic

openings should be covered with 1⁄4-in. wire mesh.

vapor barrier?

The problem with that approach is that open crawl

■

■

Inspect the crawl space for wetness and signs

spaces mean cold floors and heat loss in winter; and

of seepage.

in summer, warm moist air entering through vents

106 FOUNDATIONS, BASEMENTS, AND CRAWL SPACES

FOUNDATION AND

SUBSTRUCTURE FRAMING

Subflooring

Mudsill

Joists

Girder notch

Girder

Foundation

wall

Steel

column

Concrete

slab

Perimeter

drain

Expansion joint

Footing

Moisture

barrier

Pad/footing

■■ Scan all wood framing for rot and insect damage

Substructure Framing

and use a screwdriver point to probe suspect

The structural elements visible under a house are

areas. Pay close attention to the mudsills and the

called the substructure framing. In addition to the

bottoms of wood posts.

elements shown in “Foundation and Substructure

■■ Note inadequately supported electrical wires,

Framing” above, you might also see pony walls,

plumbing pipes, and HVAC ducts.

shortened stud walls that run between the mudsill

■■ Are animals living in the crawl space? Look for

and the first-floor platform, and the sheathing that

rodent droppings and stained insulation.

■■

covers the pony walls. (Old houses in temperate cli-

Is the crawl space insulated? Are faced insulation

batts correctly installed?

mates sometimes don’t have sheathing; there, wood

siding is nailed directly to pony-wall studs, as shown

in the left photo on p. 6.)

F O U N DA T I O N S , B A S E M E N T S , A N D C R AW L S PA C E S 107

Most framing members are wood, so your sub-

structure inspection should focus on conditions

that affect wood, including excess moisture, wood–

soil contact, and insect infestation. Where you see

discolored or deteriorated framing, probe it with a

screwdriver. If the wood is water-stained but sound,

the point of your probe won’t sink much below the

surface. A common technique is to shove a narrow

screwdriver into suspected wood, bend it over, and

see if a splinter is created. Decayed wood doesn’t

splinter, it crumbles.

INITIAL IMPRESSIONS

Start by noting the size and spacing of floor joists,

girders, and posts or columns. Though modern floor

Old-style bridging installed to stiffen the floor framing framing typically spaces floor joists 16 in. on-center,

was often prenailed, with the upper ends nailed to

in older houses you may see rough-cut joists spaced

joists before the subflooring was laid down. The car-

penters often forgot to go down into the crawl space

24 in. on-center. Some floors are framed with 4×6

and complete the nailing job.

beams supporting 2×6 tongue-and-groove decking;

such beams are typically supported on 4×4 posts

placed on concrete piers with footings. The true test,

in the span of a joist provided the holes are at least

though, is how well the joists perform. Are joists

2 in. from the joist’s edge and don’t exceed one-third

stout or do they sag? Are any joists splitting or twist-

of the joist’s depth. Notches are not allowed in the

ing? Are posts plumb or bowed under stress?

middle third of a joist span. Otherwise, notches are

LEVEL OF CRAFTSMANSHIP AND CARE

allowed as long as they don’t exceed one-sixth of the

In a long glance, you can usually get a sense of how

joist’s depth.

skillfully the substructure was framed. Was blocking

Write up wood butchery such as that shown in the

or diagonal bracing installed between joists to stiffen

photo on the facing page, where a tub drain and a

them and reduce flexion? If diagonal braces were

toilet bend were added. With several joists cut

used, were they nailed completely at top and bottom?

through, it’s not surprising that there are widespread

Unnailed bracing such as that shown in the photo at

water stains on the bathroom subfloor. An inspection

right is all too common.

of the floor above would almost certainly find springy

On sloping foundation walls, are the bottoms of

floors, cracked floor tiles, and water damage.

vertical studs blocked to keep them from drifting

Often, basements with botched carpentry also con-

downward? Or were metal clips used to secure studs?

tain exposed electrical connections, sagging wires

Details such as these speak volumes about the care

and plumbing pipes, and inadequately supported

and skill of the builder.

ducts. That same lack of care is probably reflected

Of course, a house may have had many builders

in a lack of maintenance, too. If you see wood debris

and rebuilders over the years, not all of them skilled.

scattered under the house, write it up. Wood scraps,

Within certain limits, it is acceptable to drill or notch plant materials, and other debris containing cellulose

joists or studs to run plumbing pipes and electrical

may attract and support termite activity beneath the

wires. One may, for example, drill holes at any point

house and should be removed.

108 FOUNDATIONS, BASEMENTS, AND CRAWL SPACES

NOTCHING AND

DRILLING LIMITS

JOISTS

Holes OK anywhere,

Notches one-sixth

2 in. from edge, minimum

joist depth, maximum

Holes one-third

No notches,

joist depth, maximum

middle third

STUDS

Framing seriously weakened by cutouts for waste

Bearing walls

Nonbearing walls

and supply pipes. This area should be reframed with

40% of stud

60% of stud

headers and perhaps structural steel to support the

width, maximum

width, maximum

bathroom floor adequately.

Multiple holes?

Stack ’em!

must be installed between I-joist flanges (the thicker

portions at top and bottom) to prevent joists buckling

out of plane. When a floor platform is framed with

I-joists, its rim joists must also be engineered lumber

Notches

Notches

because solid-lumber rim joists could absorb too

25% of stud

40% of stud

much moisture, shrink, and shift wall loads onto the

width, maximum

width, maximum

I-joists.

Last, I-joist flanges must never be notched or cut

into, and holes drilled in I-joists must not exceed the

manufacturer’s recommendations. Typically, holes

11⁄2 in. in diameter or less are allowable in I-joist webs (plywood or OSB portion between the flanges). An

ENGINEERED LUMBER

inspector should note visible deterioration on any

Newer houses are frequently framed with some

part of an I-joist or other floor framing.

combination of solid lumber and engineered lumber,

NOTE : Modern codes require that all exposed I-joist such as GLULAM®, laminated veneer lumber (LVL),

floor members in basements be protected with a fire-

truss joists with open webs, and I-joists. Engineered

rated surface such as 1⁄2-in. gypsum board.

lumber is often specified because it can bear greater

loads than solid lumber of comparable size and is

WOOD–SOIL AND WOOD–CONCRETE

dimensionally stable. It is also lighter and easier to

CONTACT

handle.

Framing members that come in direct contact with

But like any lumber, engineered members must

soil or concrete should be scrutinized for water

be protected from excessive moisture and installed

damage, rot, and, as we’ll see in the next section,

according to manufacturer’s specifications. Just as

insect infestation. It may surprise some people that

blocking or diagonal bracing must be used to keep

wood–concrete contact is discouraged because it so

solid-lumber joists from twisting, web stiffeners

regularly occurs. If the concrete is always dry, true,

F O U N DA T I O N S , B A S E M E N T S , A N D C R AW L S PA C E S 109

OLD WOODEN POSTS often sit on precast

concrete piers without footings or on pads without

steel reinforcement. Consequently, post bottoms are

frequently rotten if a basement or crawl space has

moisture problems. Typically, the rotted post bottom

compresses and the loads supported by the post sink

as well. Rotted posts can cause floors to sag and they

should probably be replaced. The faulty drainage con-

ditions that caused the decay will need to be corrected.

ANCHOR BOLTS AND BRACING PANELS

Anchor bolts, which secure house framing to a

foundation, and bracing panels, which brace a house

against lateral loads, were first used in high-wind

and earthquake areas and there they have been most

Over time, thick wood pads will become weakened

by wicked moisture and crushed by the heavy loads

widely implemented. Both are now required by model

above. This pier obviously needs to be replaced, ide-

building codes across the country, but an inspec-

ally with a concrete pier.

tor should also bone up on local building codes

regarding these devices, as local codes may be more

stringent.

there’s not much of a problem. Both soil and concrete

ANCHOR BOLTS are installed in the forms before

wick moisture, however, and sustained contact with

the wet concrete is poured in modern foundations.

any moist medium will eventually rot wood.

The threaded portions of the bolts protrude above the

MUDSILLS sit atop foundations, so when the top

of the foundation is less than 8 in. above grade, mud-

sills routinely rot out in older houses. In general, the

closer the mudsill is to grade, the more likely it is to

absorb water and rot. Mudsills made of rot-resistant

or pressure-treated wood last longer but, in time,

wood cells will break down if they stay damp.

GIVING PADS ROOM TO MOVE

GIRDER ENDS may sit in notches at opposite ends

of a foundation and are often supported by wood

Pads should be considered part of

posts or metal columns along their span. In addition,

the foundation, not the basement floor. Conse-

the notches should be at least 1 in. wider than the

quently, a pad must be sized for the cumulative

loads it will bear. It’s common to see 6-in.- or

girder so that there is a minimum 1⁄2 in. of clearance

8-in.-thick pads with a lot of steel, whereas

on both sides and the end of the girder so that air can

floors are typically 4 in. thick, reinforced with

circulate and dry the ends of the girder. This is an

steel wire mesh rather than rebar. To prevent

important detail to inspect. Whenever you find girder

the greater loads on a pad from punching it

ends in direct contact with masonry foundation

through the concrete floor, the pad should be

poured with an expansion joint around it. Note

walls, whether concrete, concrete block, brick, or

cracks around pads: Water could enter through

stone, probe girder ends thoroughly for rot. Rotted or

them or the pad could continue to sink, creat-

cracked girder ends won’t be able to support the loads

ing structural issues.

they did when new, so reinforcement or replacement

may be needed.

110 FOUNDATIONS, BASEMENTS, AND CRAWL SPACES

WALL SHEATHING

AND SUBFLOORING

Sheathing and subflooring are not

framing per se, but they stiffen framing members

and help distribute loads. So inspectors should note

water damage and deterioration to wall sheath-

ing and subflooring. On older houses, 1-in.-thick

boards were frequently used as both sheathing

and subflooring, though plywood and OSB were

widely used by the mid-twentieth century. Of the

three materials, exterior-grade plywood is the most

resistant to water damage but only up to a point.

Water stains and rot are frequently found in the

Left: a rusty, ineffective and outdated mudsill an-subflooring beneath kitchen and bathroom fixtures,

chor bolt. Right: a new bolt with a steel, square-plate where waste pipes have leaked or toilet wax rings

washer that has been epoxied into the concrete below.

have failed. The same is true of wall sheathing,

particularly where it is less than 8 in. above grade. If plywood or OSB panels are starting to delaminate,

top of the foundation walls and the predrilled mud-

they must be replaced.

sills are put in place and bolted to them. Anchor bolts

can also be used to retrofit existing foundations, by

drilling through the mudsills into the concrete, blow-

ing clean the holes and inserting bolts. Retrofit bolts

are secured mechanically by expanding the wedges

BRACING PANELS (also known as shear panel-

of an expansion bolt (wedge anchor) or by gluing the

ing) are required, according to code, on all exterior

bolt by filling the hole with epoxy cement. Epoxy-

walls of a nonengineered or conventionally designed

secured bolts are considered much stronger than

single-family home to brace walls against lateral

expansion type as they do not come loose over time.

loads caused by wind, earthquakes, and so on. Brac-

Whatever the type of anchor bolt or hold-down

ing may also be required on some interior walls.

used, its nut must be tightened all the way down.

Plywood bracing panels are typically used on the

NOTE : If the concrete is of poor quality or the foun-walls between the foundation and floor framing and

dation is brick, it may not be possible to use anchor

around garage door openings. Code further specifies

bolts; in which case, the foundation may need to be

that the “braced wall panels be located near each end

replaced.

of a wall and at least 25 ft. on center. Designated

The modern standard is for bolting at least every

wall bracing must also make up a certain percent-

6 ft., with bolts placed within the last 12 in. of each

age of overall wall length based on several factors

mudsill. In Seismic Zones 3 and 4 special 3⁄16-in.-thick

including wind requirements, seismic category, and

plate washers measuring 2 in. by 2 in. are now re-

method used.”

quired. Houses greater than one story or on hillsides

The panels should be nailed all the way around

may require more bolts. Many older houses have

their perimeter and to intermediate members (studs

fewer bolts than would be recommended by modern

and plates) behind them. It may be necessary to add

standards. Note any bolts, nuts, or washer plates

blocks between the vertical studs to provide nail-

that are excessively corroded, as strong earthquake

ing surfaces for all edges of the plywood. Minimum

shocks could snap rusted bolts.

nail spacing is usually 6 in.; engineers often recom-

F O U N DA T I O N S , B A S E M E N T S , A N D C R AW L S PA C E S 111

mend nailing every 3 in. or 4 in. for greater strength.

Ventilation should be provided in each stud bay when

shear paneling is added to the inside of exterior sub-

area walls. Ventilation is usually provided by drilling

2-in.-dia. holes in the plywood at the top and bottom

of each stud bay.

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

■

■

Note the size and spacing of substructure framing.

■■ Are there wood scraps and debris under the

house?

■■ Note holes and notches cut into joists. Are their

size and location acceptable or do they exceed

code limits? Do joists sag?

Subterranean termites live in large underground nests.

■■ If substructure framing includes engineered

Their bodies are soft and they avoid exposure to air by

lumber, are I-joist flanges drilled or notched? Are

constructing crawl tubes out of the wood they chew

web stiffeners installed between I-joist flanges?

up. Subterranean termites are attracted to heat, so

you’ll often find them near furnaces and water heaters.

■■ Inspect mudsills, floor joists, girders, wood posts,

and pony-wall studs for signs of water damage or

rot. Does any framing come in direct contact with

dirt or damp concrete?

It’s often difficult to tell whether an infestation

■■ Is the mudsill at least 8 in. above grade?

is active. For example, if a subterranean termite

■■ Is rot present where girder ends rest on the

infestation is inactive, a prophylactic treatment may

foundation?

suffice. But if the infestation is active, the remedy

■■ Are there water stains or water-damaged sub-

may require eliminating the conditions that led to the

flooring beneath kitchen or bath drains?

infestation (such as excessive moisture and earth–

■■ Are mudsills securely bolted to foundations?

wood contact) and an aggressive chemical treatment.

Were square plate washers used?

Treatment usually consists of applying a chemical

■■ If structural steel devices such as hold-downs are

barrier on the ground that repels the termites or

used, are all holes filled with bolts and do all bolt

a treated zone whose chemical doesn’t repel them

heads make contact with the device?

initially but later kills or severely disrupts them. More

■■ Per local codes, is substructure framing ad-

equately bolstered with bracing panels?

information can be found online, for example, at

■■ Is any structural steel—whether joist hangers,

www.livingwithbugs.com.

anchor bolts, or washer plates—corroded?

TERMITES

Termites, the most famous of insect pests, include

Insect Infestation

dry-wood, subterranean, and Formosan types. Be-

If you see signs of an insect infestation, hire a pest-

cause subterranean termites need access to moisture

control professional to assess and suggest a remedy.

in the soil, they build distinctive dirt tubes up along

Pesticides are often toxic, and anyone unfamiliar

the surface of foundations. When they eat into the

with insect habits may not destroy all their nest-

wood, they usually proceed with the grain. Termites

ing sites or may apply pesticides inappropriately or

swarm in spring or fall. Discourage the return of

unnecessarily. Moreover, local codes may require a

subterranean termites by lowering soil levels around

professional.

foundations, footings, and the like.

112 FOUNDATIONS, BASEMENTS, AND CRAWL SPACES

Small, very round holes like these are typically made

by powder-post beetles, which are common in coastal

Dry-wood termites do not live in the ground and are

areas. The holes are called “emergent holes” because

often found inside walls or attics. Their existence can

they show where the beetles come from, not where

be detected by the presence of their frass (wood-

they may be currently. These beetles favor hardwoods

colored droppings).

so they eat furniture, too.

Dry-wood termites hollow out chambers separated

ticide safe enough for inside use; dusting with boric

by thin tunnels and often travel cross-grain; they

acid is another common treatment.

eject fecal pellets through holes, with the pellets

POWDER-POST BEETLES

forming pyramid-shaped piles. They are common in

Powder-post beetle holes look like tiny BB-gun holes;

southern and warmer regions and are generally not

their borings resemble coarse flour. Because these in-

as voracious as subterranean termites—that is, their

sects favor the sapwood, evidence of borings may be

destruction is more gradual.

only superficial until you prod with a pocketknife. Still, Fumigation is effective for dry-wood termites, but

holes are not a sure sign of an active infestation. One

it’s ineffective for treating subterranean termites

approach is to remove the damaged wood, sweep up

because their colonies are located in the ground and

borings, paint the area, and monitor it for a year. If

fumigation gas does not penetrate the soil.

holes reappear, it’s an active infestation: A professional Formosan termites, whose colonies may exceed

will need to fumigate the wood or apply a pesticide.

1 million individuals, are wreaking havoc along

the Gulf Coast of the United States; they live in the

ground or in buildings and build huge, hard nests.

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

■

■

Pay close attention to wood in direct contact

CARPENTER ANTS

with the soil or where water collects, such as win-

Carpenter ants are red or black, 1⁄4 in. to 1⁄2 in. long.

dowsills and doorsills, deck and porch framing,

Sometimes confused with termites, these ants have

fence posts, and garage door frames.

■

■

narrow waists and, when winged, wings of different

Note also wood in direct contact with concrete

or masonry surfaces, including mudsills and the

sizes. While they do tunnel in wet or rotting wood,

bottoms of stair stringers, and wood posts.

they do not eat it as food and are therefore less de-

■

■

Crawl spaces are especially prone to infestation

structive than termites. To locate their nests, look for

because they are frequently moist, so inspect

borings rather like coarse sawdust. Professionals will

them carefully.

often drill into nests and spray them with an insec-

F O U N DA T I O N S , B A S E M E N T S , A N D C R AW L S PA C E S 113

■

■

Note signs of infestations such as sandy, brown

tubes (subterranean termites), small piles of tiny

FUNGI AND

gray pellets beneath infested wood (dry-wood

WATER DAMAGE

termites), shredded wood debris beneath nests

(carpenter ants), and clusters of small round

holes and light-colored powdery debris (powder-

Fungus can be found growing on wood

post beetles).

almost anywhere the wood is wet. It will not usually

■

■

Probe suspect wood to see how bad the infesta-

grow further after the source of water has been elimi-

tion is. If you find signs of an infestation, have a

nated. Serious decay or fungus damage to structural

pest-control professional do a report and make

members almost always requires their replacement.

recommendations.

Minor damage can be treated locally.

Whether structural damage is caused by insects or

rot fungi, excess water is usually at the heart of the

Finished Basements

problem. Before treating the specific agent causing

Although finished basements are often covered with

the deterioration, reduce excess water by maintaining

drywall and flooring, a careful inspector can still

gutters, improving drainage, grading the soil away

from the building, eliminating wood–soil contact, and

learn quite a bit about underlying conditions, espe-

improving ventilation.

cially moisture problems. If a finished basement is

The fungi that rot wood reproduce by airborne

being billed as living space, the inspector should also

spores, so they’re virtually everywhere. But they can’t

get out the tape measure and see if that space con-

establish colonies on wood with a moisture content

(MC) less than 28%; and they go dormant if the MC

forms with local fire-safety codes—notably, if base-

drops below 20% or the air temperature drops below

ment windows are large enough (and low enough) to

40°F. Household molds, also caused by fungi, thrive

allow occupants to exit quickly.

in a similar moisture and temperature range. So if

moisture meter readings in the basement or crawl

SIGNS OF SEEPAGE

space are too high, reducing excess moisture may

The best place to look for signs of persistent moisture

solve both wood rot and mold problems.

is along the base of walls. Look for discolored dry-

wall and water-stained baseboards. Drywall stains

may vary from brownish water marks to the familiar

black speckles of mold. If the room is paneled, there

may be a gray discoloration in the corners and along

the base of panels. If the basement is furnished, try to

get access behind sofas or bookcases placed against

walls, for by blocking air circulation, large objects

can trap moisture and promote mold. Use your nose,

too, to detect musty smells.

Walk around the basement and note places where

the flooring flexes excessively or seems spongy. If

there is wood flooring or carpeting, it’s likely that

a subfloor of 2×4s and plywood was laid over the

original concrete floor. If there is seepage or another

unresolved moisture issue still lurking, the wood

Fungus can be found growing almost anywhere that

subflooring can rot. If there are resilient tile floors,

wood is wet. Usually, the fungus will not continue

they may be installed directly over the concrete slab,

growing after the source of water has been eliminated.

114 FOUNDATIONS, BASEMENTS, AND CRAWL SPACES

Chances are, a sofa stood against this damp wall for

Carpeting over old concrete floors often conceals

a long time, blocking air flow that might have dried it.

moisture-related damage. Newly installed carpet is a

The moldy drywall should be replaced and the mois-

red flag for inspectors, so get permission to pull up a

ture source located and corrected.

corner and look underneath.

in which case you may be able to see efflorescence

between tile joints.

If the floor is covered with carpet, a particularly

bad choice for damp basements, ask if you can pull

up a corner or a section along an exterior wall. If the

area is persistently damp, you’ll probably find sodden

underlayment pads, rusted tackless carpet strips,

and mold on the underside of the carpet. It should be

removed.

BASEMENT EGRESS WINDOWS

To enable occupants to exit quickly in case of a fire,

building codes require a method of escape—egress—

Window wells are important outside basement bed-

rooms. They need to be large enough to provide a

for sleeping rooms on every level of the house, includ-

means of escape in a fire; the well height is typically

ing the basement. Because egress windows must also

limited to 44 in.

be large enough to allow a fully equipped firefighter

to enter, codes specify the size of the egress—typi-

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

cally, at least 20 in. wide and at least 24 in. tall, with a

■

■

combined net-clear opening of 5.7 sq. ft.

Does the finished basement smell moldy? Is there

a dehumidifier?

To make it possible to climb out of an egress win-

■

■

Scrutinize the bottoms of walls for stained or

dow, codes generally specify a maximum sill height

moldy drywall, discolored baseboards, or wood

of 44 in. above the floor, although a 32-in. sill height

paneling.

seems more reasonable if there are kids or elders

■

■

If possible, pull large furnishings away from walls

present. (Check your local codes; some require two

and look for mold behind them.

egress points for basement in-law units.) Installing

■

■

Do any floor sections feel spongy or have exces-

an egress window in a concrete foundation wall is a

sive give as you step on them?

job for a pro and may require the installation of an

■

■

Do basement windows meet minimal egress

egress well.

requirements?

F O U N DA T I O N S , B A S E M E N T S , A N D C R AW L S PA C E S 115

CHAPTER 6

ELECTRICAL

SYSTEMS

ELECTRICITY IS NOTHING TO FEAR, but it must be

respected. If you are a homeowner new to home wiring

or someone inspecting a house for the first time, hire a

trained inspector or a licensed electrician to inspect the interior components of service panels and subpanels.

There is much that a nonprofessional can learn from

a hands-off look at incoming service cables, the condition of unopened panels, and electrical wiring runs that

are visible in attics or basements. Moreover, by using a

noncontact voltage tester and a plug-in circuit tester, an amateur can safely determine if house receptacles are

correctly wired.

116 ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

But untrained individuals should not touch electrical

panels or the cables feeding them and never remove the cover of a service panel or subpanel or go snooping in-Ground wire

side. Even with the main fuse or main breaker turned

off, there are cables inside a panel that will still be hot (energized) and that could deliver a fatal shock.

When inspecting components of an electrical sys-

tem, observe this caution: Before removing outlet covers or switch plates, or working on any electrical device, turn off the power at the service panel—and then test with a voltage tester to make sure the power really is off.

Safely Inspecting

Black hot wire

White

Electrical Systems

neutral

wire

Understanding electricity is the first step to safely

inspecting electrical systems. The second is using a

voltage tester to detect the presence of electrical cur-

rent and avoid shocks.

Fixture

You can wear street clothes for most of an inspec-

tion. But when inspecting electrical systems it’s wise

to wear safety glasses and insulating gloves. Trained

inspectors examining potentially energized electrical

panels should read “Personal Protection Equipment”

on p. 123, which contains National Electrical Code®

(NEC) recommendations that protect a person from

arc flash and shock hazards.

Electricity always flows in a circuit. The hot wire car-

UNDERSTANDING ELECTRICITY

ries the current from the power source to the fixture,

Electricity (flowing electrons called current) moves

and the neutral wire returns it to the power source.

through a wire, like water in a pipe. The flow of water

is measured in gallons per minute; the flow of elec-

trons is measured in amperes or amps. Water pressure

is measured in pounds per square inch, and the force

behind the electrons in a wire is measured in volts.

READ UP

The larger the pipe, the more water that can flow

through it; likewise, larger wires allow a greater flow

of electricity. A small-diameter pipe will limit the

The safety alerts and practices

flow of water, compared to a larger pipe; similarly,

explained in this chapter will go far to protect you,

but the best protection is knowledge. We strongly

wiring that is too small will resist the flow of current.

recommend that readers also visit the OSHA/NIOSH

If that resistance (measured in ohms) is too great, the

website on electrical safety: www.cdc.gov/niosh/

wires will overheat and may cause a fire.

docs/2009-113.

Think of alternating current (AC) electrical systems

as a loop that runs from a generation point (or power

117

BASIC ELECTRICAL

INSPECTION TOOLS

Inspector Brian Cogley (p. 3) can

below you or a storage room full of junk below. The

complete the electrical part of an inspection with a

main thing is to put back what was there—to replace

circuit analyzer and this handful of tools. In his own

whatever it was that you might have lost. Besides,

words, here is how he uses them.

you wouldn’t want to leave a panel loose, for liability

“I use the small screw gun mostly to remove

reasons.

mechanical screws when I am inspecting a multiunit

“Extra fuses. Sometimes, for reasons beyond your

residence and I have a lot of panels to look at. I prob-

control, a fuse will blow while you’re there inspecting.

ably save myself a half hour of time it would take me

You can’t just say, ‘Oh, well,’ when the lights go out.

to turn all those panel screws by hand. Otherwise, my

So I like to carry several different size screw-in fuses

multibit screwdriver can do the job, with a little help

. . . just in case.

from an offset screwdriver in tight spots.

“I don’t use a multimeter very much for inspec-

“My primary use for a utility knife is to score

tions, but it can be useful to figure out voltage drop

around the edges of electrical subpanels that have

when a large appliance is turned on or, say, what’s go-

been painted over. With a nice sharp razor you can

ing on with a 240-volt breaker for a dryer or a range. I

score the paint around the edges and get the panel

don’t have to solve the problem, but if I can ascertain

cover off cleanly.

that something is definitely amiss, then I can refer it

“I like having extra panel screws on hand because

to a licensed electrician.”

now and again you drop one and there may be bushes

1

2

5

4

3

6

7

8

Electrical inspection tools: 1, noncontact voltage tester; 2, small screw gun; 3, multibit screwdriver; 4, offset screwdriver; 5, utility knife; 6, panel screws; 7, fuses; 8, multimeter.

118 ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

source) through a load (something that uses electri-

cal power, such as a light bulb) and back to the gen-

eration point. In a home, the electrical current from

a power company is split into smaller loops called

circuits. In typical circuit wiring, a hot wire (usually

black or red) carries current from the service panel

to one of the various loads, and a neutral wire (typi-

cally white or light gray) carries current back to the

service panel.

USING A NONCONTACT VOLTAGE TESTER

A noncontact voltage tester is a popular battery-

operated voltage tester that is reliable, inexpensive,

and small enough to fit in a shirt pocket. Its tip glows

Always test before touching electrical components

(and it may beep, depending on the model) when

that may be hot (energized). Here, the glowing tip of a

the plastic tip is brought close to or touched to a hot

noncontact voltage tester (sometimes called an induc-

tance tester) indicates that a wall receptacle is hot.

(energized) screw terminal, receptacle slot, wire, or

other conductor.

Each time you use a noncontact tester—or any volt-

NOTE : Only a trained professional should remove

age tester—test that it’s functioning properly first on

the cover of an electrical panel. Modern service panels

a receptacle that you know is hot.

rated for exterior use have a hinged, weatherproof

A noncontact voltage tester will usually glow when

door and an inside cover. Opening the panel door

its tip is merely near an energized conductor—that

to flip a breaker on or off is an everyday event, but

is, it can “read” current through a wire’s insulation

removing the inside cover of a panel can have serious

or through a cover plate. Thus you can often detect

consequences because it exposes energized elements

electrical current at a switch, fixture, or service panel inside the panel. Thus, only a trained professional

without removing the outlet or panel cover.

should remove a panel cover.

TESTING A RECEPTACLE /OUTLET. After shut-

Before removing a subpanel cover, touch the tester

ting off power at the panel, insert the tester tip into

to several breakers in the on position. If the tester tip the narrow (hot) slot of a receptacle. If the tester tip

doesn’t glow, the panel is probably deenergized. But

does not glow, there is probably no voltage present.

keep testing to be sure: Remove the cover and test

To be sure, insert the tester tip into the receptacle’s

again inside the panel. Once the cover is off, however,

wide (neutral) slot and into the grounding slot. This

an inspector should avoid touching components

should protect you in case the receptacle was incor-

inside the panel: His or her job is observing.

rectly wired.

IMPORTANT: The only way to be 100% safe is to dis-TESTING TO SEE IF A PANEL OR SUBPANEL

connect power to a panel and test to be sure the power IS ENERGIZED. Cut power inside a service panel by is off. However, home inspectors rarely disconnect

switching off the main breaker or by removing the

power to panels unless the house is vacant and clear

main fuse in a fuse box. This deenergizes the panel’s

of furniture. Homeowners often have computers,

hot buses. To cut power to a subpanel, flip off the

timers, security systems, and other devices that

subpanel breaker in the service panel and lock the

require power full-time; so shutting them all down

service panel so no one can turn the subpanel breaker

during an inspection is not practical.

back on.

E L E C T R I C A L S Y S T E M S 119

Here, a noncontact volt-

age tester indicates that

subpanel breakers are

energized. As its name

suggests, a noncontact

tester often does not

need to be in direct con-

tact with an energized

conductor to detect cur-

rent nearby.

After shutting off the

subpanel disconnect in

the service panel—and

locking it to keep others

out of the panel—an

inspector tests the

subpanel again. This

time, the tester indicates

that there is no power

Trained professionals can inspect a subpanel safely if

present.

they first turn off the subpanel disconnect in the ser-

vice panel, and then use a voltage tester to verify that

the power is off.

WHEN THE PROS SAY NO

Professional home inspectors like a challenge. But

every now and then they come on conditions so risky

that the only wise course is to say no. If you encoun-

ter any of the following conditions, request that they

be fixed before resuming the electrical part of your

inspection.

POTENTIAL SHOCK HAZARDS. If you see

standing water or wet soil and improper wiring, don’t enter the basement or crawl space. Water or dampness alone is no reason to stay out, but exposed wire

splices (not inside a covered box), improperly sup-

ported wire runs, or other evidence of substandard

practices is a sign that there may be shock hazards

as well. Most licensed electricians won’t enter such

spaces either.

Always test to be sure. If you do inspect under the house, it’s a wise precaution to touch a noncontact

voltage tester to metal water supply pipes, metal

Be very suspicious of loose wire ends. A licensed

ducts, the water heater housing, and any other

electrician should remove all old, apparently unused

wiring. Wires that look dead can become energized by

metal surfaces that could become energized by a

connections made at other locations. Use a tester, if

ground fault.

available, to check any old exposed wiring.

120 ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

FOUR REASONS TO STAY

OUT OF PANELS!

Trained professionals routinely

remove panel covers so they can inspect the electri-

cal components inside service panels and subpanels.

Untrained amateurs, however, should stay out. Here

are four reasons for this caution:

■■ Just removing or replacing a panel cover can be

risky. Some older panels have no protective cover-

ing over the energized bars that supply power to

the main panel. Inspectors need to be very careful

when replacing the inside cover in such panels to

avoid a minor explosion or electrocution should the

cover touch these bars by mistake.

■■ There is no easy way for a nonprofessional to be

certain that an electrical panel is correctly grounded,

and thus a great shock risk exists.

■■ In most service panels, there is a small area near

the main breaker that stays energized even after

that breaker is set to an off position. Accidentally

touching that area could shock and possibly kill you.

■■ Local building codes may specify that any panel

work be done by a licensed electrician. Work not

The inside cover of this panel has been removed by the

done by a licensed electrician may nullify appliance

inspector to examine the wiring inside. Some outdated panels or equipment warranties or even void a homeowner’s

have no protection on the energized (hot) vertical bars

insurance should a mishap occur.

exposed inside the panels near the top (upper arrows).

Inspectors and electricians need to be very careful when

replacing the inside cover in such panels to avoid a minor explosion or electrocution should the cover come in contact with these exposed bars by mistake. (The supply cables of a panel usually enter at the top of a panel; here they enter from the bottom. Inspectors see many strange things.)

Note: The bare wire ends terminating to lugs in the main disconnect (lower arrows) are always hot, even when the disconnect is turned off.

A correctly grounded electrical system (see p. 137)

ior can become unpredictable. In such conditions,

should protect you against ground faults, but again,

especially stay away from high-voltage conductors

you should not assume that a system is correctly

such as the cables in an overhead service entrance

wired. (That’s one of the things you will learn in

(see p. 124). Electricity can arc (jump) to nearby the course of your inspection.) If your voltage tester

objects, such as a person on a metal ladder, with fatal

indicates electrical current in things that shouldn’t

consequences.

be energized, leave the space.

LIMITED ACCESS. Trained inspectors often

STAY OUT OF THE RAIN. If it’s rainy or misty

inspect panels that are inconveniently located (such

outside, it’s often wise to reschedule an inspection.

as in closets), but an inspector should not tolerate a

Roof surfaces become slick, and electricity’s behav-

location that is so inaccessible or tight that it would

E L E C T R I C A L S Y S T E M S 121

OUTDATED BRANDS OF PANELS. If it’s obvi-

ous that a panel is outdated and should be replaced,

some inspectors won’t even bother to open it. Federal

Pacific and Zinsco panels, for example, are two older

brands that have a host of well-documented failures.

Here the issue is more about time than inspector

safety per se.

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

■

■

If it is rainy or misty outside, defer inspecting

exterior service panels and stay away from high-

voltage service cables.

■

■

Where is the service panel (entrance panel) lo-

cated? Where are subpanels (if any) located?

■

■

Are all electrical panels in dry, accessible loca-

Electrical panels should never be installed where ac-

cess is limited and especially not inside clothes closets tions? Is dampness present or are there water

where a fire could easily start if an electrical short

stains on the walls or the floor near the panels? Is

occurred.

there rust on the panel(s)?

■

■

Is there enough clearance to quickly get away

from the panel should a mishap occur?

be unsafe. “Unsafe” is a judgment call, obviously.

■

■

What is the general level of workmanship? Does

The NEC requires that a panel location have mini-

it look professionally done or makeshift?

mum clearances of 78 in. of headroom, 36 in. of

■

■

What is the condition of wiring around the

free space in front of the panel, and 30 in. across the

panel(s)? Are electrical connections in covered

face of the panel. The panel should be installed at a

boxes or are they exposed? Are cables adequately

supported or do they sag?

comfortable height, meaning that no breaker handle

should be higher than 72 in. These clearances ensure

enough room to work comfortably on a panel or, as

Electrical Service

important, enough room to get away from the panel

Power from the utility service is commonly delivered

immediately if there is a mishap.

through three large wires, or conductors, which may

enter the house overhead or underground. Overhead

service wires are called a service drop. The drop runs

to a weatherhead atop a length of rigid conduit. When

fed underground, service conductors are installed

in buried conduit or run as underground service-

WHEN A PANEL IS

entrance (USE) cable.

PAINTED OVER

Whether it arrives overhead or underground, three-

wire service delivers 120 volts to ground and 240 volts

Removing panel covers that have been

between the hot (energized) conductors. Three-wire

painted over may damage the finish surface and rip

service consists of two insulated hot conductors

the drywall surfaces. To avoid such damage, inspec-

wrapped around a stranded bare aluminum wire

tors should use a utility knife to score around the

perimeter of the panel. That will break the paint seal.

with an internal steel messenger cable—the bare

aluminum wire also serves as a neutral. Two-wire

service, which is still found on some older homes, is

122 ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

PERSONAL PROTECTION

EQUIPMENT

A qualified person testing or working

in a potentially energized electrical panel must wear

personal protection equipment (PPE) as specified in

NFPA 70E® PPE Hazard Level 1, Table 130.7 (C) (16).

"The PPE requirements of 130.7 are intended to pro-

tect a person from arc flash and shock hazards." This protective equipment includes the following:

■■ Hard hat

■■ Arc-rated long-sleeve shirt and pants or arc-rated

coverall

■■ Arc-rated face shield or arc flash suit hood

■■ Safety glasses or safety goggles

■■ Hearing protection (ear canal inserts)

■■ Heavy-duty leather gloves over rubber insulating

gloves

■■ Leather work shoes

Reproduced with permission from NFPA70E-2012, Electrical Safety in the Workplace, Copyright © 2011, National Fire Protection Association. This reprinted material is

not the complete and official position of the NFPA on the referenced subject, which is represented only by the standard in its entirety.

Personal protection equipment is required when work-

ing in a potentially energized electrical panel, per the

National Fire Protection Association (NFPA).

inadequate for modern needs because it delivers only

SAFE ENTRANCES

120 volts.

TREE TRUNKS AND BRANCHES can damage elec-

Service conductors are attached to a meter base and

trical cable, so they should never come in contact. In

then to the service panel. Straddling the two sets of

time, branches can fray cables’ insulative sheathing,

terminals on its base, the meter measures the watt-

exposing bare wire. As the wiring between power

age of electricity as it is consumed. The service panel

poles and building is typically the responsibility of

also routes power to various circuits throughout

the local utility, it should trim trees away from wires.

the house.

Before anyone works near such wires, they should

The utility company will attach the service drop

first call the power company to disconnect the power.

and install the meter. The homeowner is responsible

The power company should also be contacted to

for everything beyond that, including the meter

repair damaged or frayed wires.

base and breaker panel, which a licensed electrician

OVERHEAD SERVICE WIRES must also be high

should install.

enough to prevent contact: a minimum 12 ft. above a

E L E C T R I C A L S Y S T E M S 123

SERVICE ENTRANCES

Aerial Service Entrance

Hot primary

Service drop

Splice point

(3 wire)

Neutral primary

Weatherhead

12 ft. minimum

over driveway

Ground wire

Meter panel

Buried Service Entrance

Hot primary

Neutral primary

Conduit to

bottom of

Ground wire

pole

Meter panel

Service laterals

(three insulated

Older homes may have overhead service, but underground

conductors) buried

service is increasingly common. The utility’s responsibility 4 ft. underground

ends where the service-drop cables are spliced to the service conductors running to the meter. In some areas, code requires that underground conductors be housed in conduit.

124 ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

SERVICE ENTRANCE TO THE EAVES SIDE

When the service drop extends over eaves, the service riser or conduit runs up through the eaves. The roof jack or metal flashing at this connection is usually caulked or sealed.

Weatherhead

Hot

2 ft. to 3 ft.

Service drop

Support

Neutral

braces

Service riser (mast)

Point of attachment

18 in. minimum

Roof jack

above roof

4 ft. maximum

2-in. threaded

Clamp every 3 ft.

galvanized

steel conduit

Threaded hub

Meter panel

driveway, at least 10 ft. above a pedestrian walkway,

and 18 ft. above a street or swimming pool. Overhead

service wires should be no closer than 3 ft. from the

side or bottom of an operable window. Wires pass-

ing over a low-slope roof (less than 4-in-12) should

clear the roof by 8 ft.; for slopes greater than that,

a 3-ft. clearance will suffice. When the service drop

approaches over roof eaves, the minimum clearances

shown in “Service Entrances” on the facing page

should be maintained. There are some exceptions to

these rules; the utility provider typically has jurisdic-

tion in such matters.

UNDERGROUND SERVICE CONDUCTORS are

Overhead electrical service wires should not be in con-

tact with trees or other vegetation as branches can rub

becoming more popular because street power poles

on wires and damage the insulation. In a storm, falling

are unsightly and buried electrical cables are some-

branches could damage wires and/or cause power

outages.

what safer than energized wires running overhead.

E L E C T R I C A L S Y S T E M S 125

Aluminum/steel

messenger wire

Service neutral

Service phase A

Service phase B

(hot)

(hot)

Underground services are becoming more popular as

the power poles are being removed. This conduit has

punched through the bottom of the panel, perhaps

because of building settlement or seasonal soil move-

A typical three-wire service drop consists of two

ment upward. This installation should be reviewed

insulated hot conductors wrapped around a stranded

by the utility provider and a qualified electrician, and

bare aluminum wire with an internal steel messenger

repaired as needed.

cable—the bare wire also serves as a neutral.

Nonetheless, homeowners or contractors should call

coming service wires. Service masts should be vertical;

811 before digging near buried service cables. Local

note leaning masts on your inspection report. In many

utility companies will be notified about your intent

cases, the braces of leaning masts have been bolted

to dig and in a few days will send a locator to mark

to roof sheathing only; ideally, bracing bolts should

the approximate location of your underground lines,

anchor to framing beneath sheathing. Bent service

pipes, and cables, so you’ll know what’s below and be

masts are usually too small in diameter, too tall, or

able to dig safely. Underground service conductors

insufficiently braced; a licensed electrician should

may also be susceptible to house settling, as shown

assess their condition and repair or replace them.

in the left photo above.

On older houses, you may also see service entrance

cables attach to porcelain insulators screwed to sid-

SOLID ATTACHMENTS

ing, eaves, or trim. If the insulator screws into fram-

The connection between the utility company’s wires

ing behind the trim, the attachment may be secure.

and the wires at the weatherhead should be insulated

Where a porcelain insulator is screwed only to trim,

and secure. The conductors entering the weatherhead

over time the weight of incoming cables can pull the

should be in separate holes of an insulating bushing,

trim away from the building. This is hazardous.

and should be arranged with a drip loop so water

does not run into the service mast. Cable sheathing

ELECTRIC METERS

should be intact. Have an electrician examine any

Electric meters (and certain covers on a service panel)

worn or damaged wires near the weatherhead for

are sealed by the utility company to prevent tamper-

repair or replacement; the service drop is the respon-

ing. A broken or missing seal on the meter or on

sibility of the utility company.

other panel components may indicate an attempt to

The service mast (service riser), which is the home-

bypass the meter or a past alteration of the service

owner’s responsibility, should be supported by braces

without notifying the utility provider. The utility

as needed to offset the weight and tension of the in-

company should be contacted to reseal the meter.

126 ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

A length of rigid conduit typically protects service

conductors as they enter the meter base. Examine

the fitting where the conduit enters the base to

ensure that it is watertight; write up cracked or

missing rubber seals or a meter base that is not

securely attached.

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

■

■

Is there three-wire service running to the house—

two insulated hot conductors wrapped around a

stranded bare aluminum/steel wire? Or is there

outdated two-wire service?

■

■

Do trees make contact with overhead service

conductors? The utility company should be con-

This is a potentially very hazardous condition. The tape

tacted to cut back trees and repair or replace any

used to wrap connections has worn, exposing energized

damaged wires.

wires inside. A homeowner removing roof debris or a

roofer could inadvertently touch these connections and

■

■

Do overhead service wires maintain the minimum

be electrocuted. Connections need to be rewrapped or

clearances spelled out in the text and shown in

replaced with more weather-resistant connectors.

the illustrations on pp. 124–125?

Also, note that the service neutral (stranded bare cable)

■

■

has rubbed through the insulation of a hot conductor,

Are service conductors and their sheathing intact

creating a short.

or are any wires worn or damaged?

■

■

Do service conductors enter the weatherhead

through separate holes of an insulating bushing?

Is there a drip loop?

■

■

Is the service mast upright or leaning?

■

■

Is the meter sealed? Is conduit fitting to the

meter base watertight?

Service Panels and Subpanels

At the main panel, the two hot cables from the meter

base attach to lugs or terminals on the main breaker.

The incoming neutral cable attaches to the main lug

of the neutral/ground bus. In the main panel, neutral/

ground buses must be connected together, usually by

a wire or metal bar called the main bonding jumper.

NOTE : In subpanels and all other locations down-

stream from the main service panel, ground and neu-

tral components must be electrically isolated from each

other. ( Downstream = away from the power source.) CIRCUIT PROTECTION

The porcelain insulator for an outdated 60-amp ser-

vice drop has pulled free from the building. Chances

Each fuse or breaker is rated at a specific number of

are, the insulator was screwed only to trim and over

amps (15-amp and 20-amp breakers or fuses take care

time the weight of service cables pulled the insulator

of most household circuits). All current produces

out, straining connections and creating a hazard.

E L E C T R I C A L S Y S T E M S 127

INSIDE A SERVICE PANEL

Incoming ground

Hot feeder lines

(incoming power)

Incoming neutral

Main breaker

Hot bus bar

(behind breakers)

Neutral bus bar

Ground bus bar

Individual circuits

Hot cables from meter

Incoming

attach to lug terminals.

ground

Incoming neutral

Neutral/ground

cable attaches

here.

Main breaker

Main bonding jumper

Neutral buses

Hot wire

The service panel houses incoming cables

Neutral wire

Ground wire

from the meter as well as the breakers and wires that

Ground buses

distribute electricity to individual circuits. At the service panel, neutral conductors (white wires), equipment-Hot buses

grounding conductors (bare copper or green insulated

wires), the meter service panel, and the grounding

Grounding electrode

conductor

electrode system (grounding rods) must be bonded

Knockouts for circuit

together.

cables on all sides of

panel box

128 ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

some heat, and as current increases, the heat gener-

panel) in the garage or another centralized location

ated increases. When a circuit becomes overloaded or

inside that is easy to access, such as a laundry room.

a short circuit occurs, the breaker trips or a fuse strip melts, thereby cutting voltage to the hot wire.

FUSE BOXES

If there were no breakers or fuses, and if too much

Many older homes still have fuse boxes. Fuses are

current continued to flow, the wires would overheat

the earliest overcurrent protection devices, and

and could start a fire. Amperage ratings of breakers

they come as either Edison-type (screw-in) fuses or

and fuses are matched to the size (cross-sectional area,

cartridge (slide-in) fuses. Edison-style fuses are more

measured as gauge) of the circuit wires. Overfusing—

common. They have little windows that let you see a

using a fuse rated higher than the wire it protects—is

filament. When the circuit has been overloaded and

dangerous because circuit wires could overheat and

the fuse is blown, the filament will be separated.

start a fire.

A fuse with a blackened (from heat) interior could

mean a short circuit—a potentially dangerous situa-

THE MAIN BREAKER

tion that a licensed electrician should repair. The less

All electricity entering a house goes through the

common cartridge fuses are used to control 240-volt

main breaker or breakers, which are usually located

circuits and are usually part of the main disconnect

at the top of a main panel. In an emergency, flipping

switch, or serve heavy-duty circuits for an electric

the main breakers (main disconnects) to off will turn

range or a clothes dryer.

off all power to the house. The main breakers are also

In a main fuse box, the hot conductors from the

the primary overcurrent protection for the electrical

meter attach to the main power lugs, and the neutral

system and are rated accordingly. (The rating is

cable to the main neutral lug. Whether the panel has

stamped on the breaker handles.) If the main breaker

breakers or fuses, metal buses run from the main

for a 200-amp panel senses current that exceeds its

breaker/main fuse. Running down the middle of the

load rating, the breaker will automatically trip and

panel, buses distribute power to the various branch

shut off all power.

circuits either through fuses or through breakers.

In some regions, photovoltaic solar systems are

The neutral/ground buses are long aluminum bars

being installed on homes. Where these systems exist,

containing many terminal screws, to which ground

the main breaker will not always de-energize the

and neutral wires are attached.

panel, as the solar system is another source of power.

PV systems vary greatly in design and should be

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

handled by trained professionals. Required warning

■

■

Is there a fuse box or breaker panel? Is there also

labels should be present to alert those at the panel

a subpanel?

location of the secondary power supply.

■

■

Where are panels located? Are they easily ac-

cessed? Panels in clothes closets or storage areas

METER/MAINS

that contain flammable materials are typically

Increasingly common are meter/mains, which house

code violations.

a meter base and a main breaker in a single box.

■

■

Is there a main breaker outside the house that

Meter/mains allow a homeowner to put the main

can be accessed in an emergency?

breaker outside the house, where it can be accessed in

■

■

What is the capacity of the main disconnect

an emergency—if firefighters need to cut the power

breakers or fuses in the main panel? (The amper-

age capacity will be stamped on the panel’s main

to the house before they go inside, for example.

breakers or fuses.)

When meter/mains are used, electricians often locate

a panel with the branch circuit breakers (called a sub-

E L E C T R I C A L S Y S T E M S 129

INADEQUATE CAPACITY. In older houses it is

not uncommon to find a 30-amp or 60-amp service.

A 30-amp main capacity is inadequate and should be

upgraded; 60-amp services are marginally OK as long

as there are no electric heaters, air-conditioners, or

electric ranges. Since 1960, the minimum capacity for

a new detached dwelling is 100 amps. Modern single-

family residences typically have an electrical capacity

of 125 amps; larger new houses may have capacities

of 200 amps or more.

PROVIDING 120 VOLTS ONLY. Older two-wire

service, which provides only 120-volt service (see

p. 122), was once common. But 120-volt service is not adequate for many modern appliances. Even if

the house wiring has not been altered since original

construction, the service should be upgraded.

BREAKER PANEL FULL. If there is no room

to add circuit breakers, have an electrician do load

analysis of the panel and recommend an upgrade.

LIGHTS DIM. Lights dimming when a refrigerator

or other large appliance’s motor kicks in—or when

several appliances are running at the same time—is

This undersize 30-amp main switch and fuses are the

service panel for a whole house. Moreover, this lever

common in older homes when lights and appliances

main panel does not have a dead-front cover to protect

are on the same circuit. Big energy users should be on

users from shocks—energized connections can easily

be touched. The panel should be replaced at once.

dedicated circuits. Have an electrician add circuits or

upgrade the service panel.

FREQUENTLY BLOWN FUSES usually indicate

that circuits are loaded beyond capacity or that there

Inspecting Fuse Boxes

is a persistent short circuit. If a properly rated fuse

or Breaker Panels

blows when an appliance starts, the startup load of

By inspecting the condition of an unopened panel

the appliance may be too great for the type of fuse;

and the wiring that’s visible in the basement or attic,

try replacing it with a time-delay fuse of the same

nonprofessionals can get a good overview of the elec-

rating. If a time-delay fuse doesn’t solve the problem,

trical system’s condition. If the system seems unsafe

call an electrician.

or inadequate, a licensed electrician should open and

OVERFUSING, or using a fuse (or breaker) rated

inspect the panel.

higher than the wire it protects, is dangerous because

NOTE : Only a trained professional should remove

the wire could overheat and catch fire. If you see only

the cover of an electrical panel.

30-amp fuses installed in a panel—with no 15-amp

ASSESSING PANEL CAPACITY

or 20-amp fuses protecting general household and

You can assess the capacity of service panels and

lighting circuits—chances are that the panel is over-

subpanels without removing panel covers. Look for

fused. (There’s more about overfusing on p. 134.)

the following issues.

130 ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

■■ Is the service entrance two- or three-wire?

What’s the capacity of the main breakers

or fuses?

■■ Is there room in the entrance panel to add

circuits?

■■ Do lights dim or fuses blow when large appliance

motors start up? Do fuses blow often?

■■ Does the panel seem to be overfused?

INSPECTING PANEL CONDITION—

COVER ON

You can get a good sense of an electrical panel’s con-

dition without removing panel covers. The following

Here, main panel lugs secure multiple wires; each lug

should secure only one. Adding wires can cause loose

are some conditions to look for.

connections and arcing and create a fire. Also, the

LOOSE WIRING NEAR PANEL. Wires entering

wires added to the main panel lugs do not appear to

panels and boxes should be secured to adjacent

have any circuit breaker overload protection, so wires

could melt.

framing within 12 in. of the panel or fuse box. Loose

wiring and other substandard practices suggest an

electrical system that has been modified by a non-

professional. Because there may be more defects in

concealed areas, the system should be inspected by a

licensed electrician.

RUST AND CORROSION on the outside of a

service box or on the armored cable or conduit

feeding it can indicate corroded connections inside.

Such connections can lead to arcing and house fires,

so have a licensed electrician replace the fuse box or

panel. Likewise, if you see scorch marks on breakers

or a panel—or near a receptacle cover—have a pro

examine it.

MULTIPLE WIRES ATTACHED TO PANEL

LUGS. A single wire should terminate at each panel lug. Terminating additional wires beneath one lug

can cause loose connections and arcing, which could

be a fire hazard. Lacking circuit-breaker overload

protection, additional wires could melt (instead

This panel cover has a missing twist-out where a

of causing a breaker to trip) if there were shorts or

breaker was removed and not replaced. Such open-

overloading.

ings are potential shock hazards and should be

filled with special cover plates. In addition, the panel

OPENING ( S ) IN A PANEL FACE. The inner

is an outdated Federal Pacific brand, widely regarded

covers of circuit breaker panels have twist-out tabs

as unsafe.

that can be removed for each breaker location.

Unused openings can allow contact with the live

E L E C T R I C A L S Y S T E M S 131

At right, circuit wires enter through a knock-out hole

The ends of metal conduit are often sharp, so bush-

missing a cable clamp. Such wires could get yanked,

ings are often used inside conduit ends to protect the

endangering electrical connections, or they could have

relatively thin insulative sheathing of electrical cables their insulation sliced by sharp box edges. Holes in

as they enter a panel.

boxes also provide access to rodents attracted to the

panel’s warmth.

(energized) electrical components behind the panel

through thermoplastic cable sheathing, which could

cover. Clips can be purchased to fill such openings.

energize the panel (if the grounding of the system is

A similar danger exists in fuse panels with empty fuse

not correct) and electrocute anyone who touches.

sockets. Empty sockets should be filled with fuses

NO INSIDE COVER . The energized wiring and

even though not in use.

terminals inside modern panels should not be acces-

PANEL COVERS WITH MISSING PARTS, gaps,

sible when the panel cover is open. The “dead front”

or that fit poorly are unsafe. So if you see covers that

is an inside cover designed to protect panel users

have been cut to fit a breaker, housing knockouts

from electrical shock when operating a breaker or

that are missing, bus bars that are visible when the

replacing a fuse. Missing covers should be replaced.

panel cover is on, or mismatched components, hire

Older fuse panels that do not have dead-front covers,

a licensed electrician to assess and correct those

such as the lever main panel shown in the photo on

problems.

p. 130, are unsafe and should be replaced.

OPEN KNOCK-OUT HOLE ( S ) . Panel boxes have

OLDER , OUTDATED PANEL AND BREAKERS,

knockouts in the sides, bottom, and top that can

such as Federal Pacific and Zinsco, have a host of

be removed to provide holes for the wires to enter.

well-documented failures and so should be carefully

Typically, cable connectors (clamps) are inserted

checked and, where necessary, replaced.

into knock-out holes. Unused holes can be filled with

WRONG BRAND OR TYPE OF BREAKER .

special covers to maintain the fire integrity of the

Panels with several brands of breakers should raise a

panel and to prevent entry of insulation, vermin, or

red flag. Many brands of circuit breakers can be made

insects.

to fit other brands of panels, but only the types for

CABLES UNPROTECTED AT HOLE ( S ) . Cable

which the panel has been tested and approved should

wires should be protected with bushings and/or

be used. Modern panels often have a rating sheet

strain relief clamps where they enter panel box holes

inside the panel listing the types and brands that are

or openings. A missing cable connector (clamp)

acceptable. Using other breakers increases the

may also allow the sharp edge of the panel to slice

likelihood of arcing and other hazards.

132 ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

socket—a dangerous act in itself—and then re-

installs the fuse. The penny allows current to bypass

the fuse and the protection it offers. Here, again,

have an electrician examine the circuits for damage

to the wire insulation.

A PROPERLY GROUNDED PANEL will have

a large grounding wire running from the panel

to a grounding electrode (which could be a metal

underground water pipe, a ground rod driven into the

earth, or an Ufer electrode). For the entire electrical

system to be grounded, there must be a continuous

ground wire or other effective grounding path run-

ning from each device or fixture to the service panel

and, by extension, to the grounding electrode. Cold-

This panel has at least two strikes against it. Because

water and gas pipes must also be connected (bonded)

an incoming conduit leaked water, many of the panel’s

breaker terminals are corroded or rusted. When you

to the grounding bus in the panel.

see several different breaker brands, be suspicious.

See “Grounding Basics” on p. 137 for more infor-Some of the breakers may not be approved for use in

the panel.

mation about this vitally important topic.

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

MISSING HANDLE TIES. When two breakers are

■

■

Is wiring near the panel(s) installed in a neat,

paired to protect a single 240-volt circuit, the breaker

workmanlike manner?

switch handles should be mechanically connected

■

■

Are panels rusted, corroded, scorched, or other-

to operate in unison. A simple connector can be in-

wise damaged?

stalled by an electrician to ensure that both breakers

■

■

Are there unused openings in the panel face or

trip at the same time. Handle ties are also required

open knockouts around the sides, top, and bot-

when two breakers protect multiwire branch circuits,

tom of the panel box? Are energized wires or

such as for a combination dishwasher and garbage

terminals visible through such openings?

disposer receptacle.

■

■

Are cable wires protected with bushings and/or

strain relief clamps where they enter panel box

AN OVERSIZE FUSE OR BREAKER may not

holes or openings?

melt wires where you can see them, but there may be

■

■

Do older fuse panels lack inside covers?

damaged wire insulation in places not readily visible.

■

■

Are breaker panels or equipment outdated or

Anytime the inspector finds a fuse or breaker that’s

discontinued brands? Does the panel contain

too big for the circuit, an electrician should inspect

different brands of breakers and, if so, are they

the system. Installing Type S fuse socket inserts in

approved for that panel?

older panels can allow the installation of modern

■

■

Does the panel wiring have adequate overload

porcelain fuses. In general, however, it is best to re-

protection?

place all old fuse panels with modern circuit breaker

■

■

Is there any evidence that someone has tried to

panels to provide a safer system.

penny a fuse?

“PENNYING” A FUSE is another unsafe way to

■

■

Is the panel properly grounded? (See p. 137 for more information.)

deal with an overloaded circuit that keeps blowing

fuses. In this case, someone unscrews a fuse, inserts

a penny or a blank metal slug into the bottom of the

E L E C T R I C A L S Y S T E M S 133

Screws that come with new panels have blunt ends

White wires inside an electrical panel are the ones

designed to avoid damaging wires. When such

most likely to show signs of overheating. Power enters

screws get lost, remuddlers sometimes use drywall

the system through black (hot) wires and, after be-

or wood screws to secure covers. Very dangerous!

ing partially used, it returns along the white (neutral)

The screws’ sharp points can puncture the insulation

wires. Some wiring configurations will allow one neu-

of energized wires.

tral wire to carry the return load from two hot wires. If not wired correctly, these configurations can overload

the neutral wire and cause it to melt.

INSPECTING PANEL CONDITION—COVER

REMOVED

Inspecting some conditions requires removing panel

covers and having a look inside.

NOTE : Only a trained professional should remove

the inside cover of an electrical panel. Look for the

following conditions inside a panel.

SCORCHING /MELTING. Discolored breakers

or melted wire insulation indicates excessive heat

caused by wiring or component failures. Melted wire

insulation is often caused by overfusing (discussed

next) or by loose connections in which electricity arcs

(jumps) between conductors. Because electrical arcs

are usually hot enough to melt metal, arcing is a seri-

ous fire hazard.

OVERSIZE BREAKERS/BUSES (aka overfusing).

Fuses and circuit breakers are rated to allow a specific

amount of current in the circuit before tripping or

burning out. When the wrong size breaker or fuse is

used, there is a potential for the wiring to overheat,

Overfusing and double-wiring are common in older

fuse panels. The green and yellow fuses shown are

creating a fire hazard. For example, a 14-gauge wire is

30-amp, the red fuse is 20-amp. The red 20-amp fuse

rated to safely draw 15 amps before the wiring

(lower left) is too large for the 14-gauge wire attached

to it, which should be protected by a 15-amp fuse.

overheats and a 15-amp fuse or circuit breaker on this

Oversize fuses can overload wires, causing them to

circuit will blow when overloaded. Using a larger

melt or start a fire.

134 ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

ALUMINUM CIRCUIT WIRING

The service entrance wires that feed a

service panel are typically three large aluminum or

copper conductors that terminate in proper-rated lugs.

Aluminum circuit wiring, however, can be a fire

hazard unless it is correctly terminated with a proper

connector such as a COPALUM connector or CO/ALR-

rated outlets and switches. If it is incorrectly termi-

nated in a copper device, the two metals can corrode

and expand and contract at different rates each time

the circuit is under load. This can lead to loose con-

nections, arcing, overheating, and house fires.

Too many wires in an electrical panel may cause the

panel cover to pinch wire insulation, creating a poten-

While not a code requirement, it’s best to apply

tial short or shock hazard. Any service panel this full

antioxidant paste to all large aluminum wiring termi-

should be replaced with a larger panel or supplemented

nations to prevent corrosion in the wiring. Corrosion

by a subpanel installed nearby.

can cause poor connections and overheating. In some

cases, the antioxidant coating may be present but not

readily visible.

breaker or fuse, such as one rated at 20 amps or

30 amps, will not provide adequate protection. (Twelve-

gauge wire takes a 20-amp fuse.) In fact, it is a

dangerous condition and a serious code violation.

requirement, professional electricians will typically

IMPROPER WIRE COLOR CODING. The insula-

leave only 1⁄2 in. of sheathing at each cable clamp

tion on individual wires is color coded to indicate its

inside a panel box.

proper use: red or black for hot wires, white wires

LOOSE END WIRE ( S ) can come in contact with

for neutrals, green or bare copper for grounds. Im-

energized components, creating a shock or fire

proper color coding may indicate modifications by a

hazard. Just because a loose end wire does not test

nonprofessional; a licensed electrician should inspect

energized, doesn’t mean it is safe.

the system.

DOUBLE WIRING (aka double tugging). Attach-

EXCESS WIRE IN PANEL. An excessive amount

ing more than one wire to a single breaker, fuse, or

of wiring in a panel can cause overheating and wire

bus bar terminal can cause loose connections, arc-

damage, creating a potentially hazardous condition.

ing, and overheating. Most terminals are designed to

In some overcrowded panels it is difficult to replace a

hold only one wire, and attaching more than one may

panel cover without damaging wire insulation, creat-

be hazardous. Double wiring is usually done because

ing a shock hazard.

a panel is full; upgrading equipment is a far safer

DAMAGED WIRE INSULATION. Wire insulation

solution.

that is damaged is potentially hazardous. It should be

SAME POLE MULTIWIRE CIRCUIT( S ) are pairs

repaired or replaced by a qualified electrician.

of 120-volt circuits that share a common neutral wire.

EXCESS CABLE SHEATHING or wrapping on

To prevent overloading the neutral, the pairs of hot

electrical cables is substandard practice and may

wires must originate from different poles in the panel

indicate work by a nonelectrician. While not a code

(so there is 240-volt potential between them). Same

E L E C T R I C A L S Y S T E M S 135

The three single-pole breakers at left all have two

This panel has “fused neutrals,” in which both the

wires attached to them, which is unsafe. A single wire

hot and neutral wires are fused. This arrangement

should attach to each breaker terminal. Multiple wires

is outmoded and unsafe because a loose or missing

attached to the same terminal can become loose, arc,

neutral fuse could make an energized circuit appear

and create a fire hazard. Chances are the panel is full

dead, thus creating a shock hazard. Also, many old

and should be replaced by a panel with larger capacity.

wood-framed panels such as this one were wrapped in

asbestos, an environmentally hazardous material.

pole multiwire circuits can typically be corrected by

opposite is true. If the neutral fuse blows, the circuit

relocating the wires to different breakers or fuses

would be hot but would appear dead, creating a

within the panel.

hazardous condition. This condition indicates an

SERVICE PANEL NOT BONDED. The service

outdated and potentially hazardous system. Fused

panel housing (box), neutral wires, and grounding

neutral panels often also have exposed electrical con-

wires should be bonded together (securely connected)

nections, creating an additional safety hazard. All

inside the main service panel. Correct bonding is

old, outdated, or unsafe panels should be replaced.

shown in the photo on p. 128. However, in subpanels, neutral wires must be isolated from the panel

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

housing and grounding wires.

■

■

Are any panel breakers or wires scorched or

IMPROPER GROUND NEUTRAL. Subpanel neu-

melted?

tral wires must be isolated from the panel housing

■

■

Are breakers or fuses correctly matched to the

(box) and grounding wires to prevent current from

circuit wires they protect? Or are breakers or

being carried on the grounding wires and compo-

fuses oversize for the wires they should protect?

■

■

nents. In subpanels, grounding wires should not

Does the panel contain improper wire color

coding?

connect to the neutral wires and should have their

■

■

own bus or terminal attached to the panel. Older sub-

Does the panel contain excess wires? Could wire

insulation be pinched or damaged when the in-

panels installed before the use of three-hole outlets

side panel cover is replaced?

may need new feed wires to provide separate paths

■

■

Does the panel contain loose-end wires?

for the neutral and grounding wires.

■

■

Are any circuits wired with 14-gauge or 12-gauge

FUSED NEUTRALS. Fuses are installed on both

aluminum wiring?

hot and neutral wires in some older fuse panels.

While this might seem to provide added safety, the

136 ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

■■ Do you see more than one wire attached to any

single breaker, fuse, or bus bar terminal?

AVOIDING

■■ Where multiwire branch circuits share a common

ELECTRICAL

neutral wire, do pairs of hot wires originate

from opposite poles (phase A and phase B) in

SHOCKS

the panel?

■■ Are the main service panel housing (box), neutral

wires, and grounding wires securely bonded

Ground faults can kill! Current

(connected together) in the main service panel?

flowing unintentionally to ground (“earth”) is

called a ground fault. The ground wire in an elec-

■■ Are subpanel neutral wires isolated from the

trical system is intended to be a low-impedance

panel housing (box) and grounding wires?

path to ground, to safely carry the current of a

■■ If there is an older fuse panel, are fuses installed

ground fault until a circuit breaker trips. You,

on both neutral and hot wires? Panels with fused

however, can also be a path to ground should you

neutrals are hazardous and should be replaced

come in contact with an energized conductor. In

immediately.

this case, you would become part of the circuit,

■■ Is the panel properly grounded? (See the next

with current flowing through you. So be careful:

section for more information.)

Only a little current flowing through your heart

can kill you. When inspecting electrical systems,

Grounding Basics

always test first to be sure that potential conductors are not energized.

Because electricity moves in a circuit, it will return to its source unless the path is interrupted. The return

STAY OUT OF THIS LOOP!

path is through the white neutral wires that bring

current back to the main panel. Ground wires provide

the current with an alternative low-resistance path

One hand touches

Other hand touches

grounded water pipe

appliance with fault.

for fault currents—abnormal electrical flows such as

(faucet).

short circuits.

WHY GROUNDING MATTERS

Why is having a grounding path important? Before

equipment-grounding conductors (commonly called

ground wires) were widespread, people could be

electrocuted when they came in contact with voltage

that, due to a fault like a loose wire, unintentionally

energized the metal casing of a tool or an electrical

appliance. Ground wires bond all electrical devices

and potentially current-carrying metal surfaces.

This bonding creates a path with such low imped-

ance (resistance) that fault currents flow along it,

Current flows

quickly tripping breakers or fuses and interrupting

through the body

power. Contrary to popular misconceptions, the

human body usually has a relatively high impedance

(compared with copper wire); if electricity is offered

a path with very low resistance—the equipment

grounding conductor—it will take the low-resistance

E L E C T R I C A L S Y S T E M S 137

path back to the panel, trip the breaker, and cut off

Also attached to the neutral/ground bus in the

the power.

service panel is a large, usually bare, copper ground

Effective bonding of all metal components is cre-

wire—the grounding electrode conductor (GEC)—

ated by ground wires (equipment grounding con-

which exits the service panel and clamps to a ground-

ductors) that connect to every part of the electrical

ing electrode, usually either a ground rod driven into

system that could become energized—metal boxes,

the earth, or an Ufer grounding electrode, a 20-ft.

receptacles, switches, fixtures—and, through three-

length of steel rebar or heavy copper wire in the foot-

pronged plugs, the metallic covers and frames of

ing of the foundation.

tools and appliances.

GROUNDING TO WATER PIPES. In many older

Grounding conductors, usually bare copper or

houses, electrical services were grounded only to

green insulated wire, create an effective path back

metal water pipes. When metal water piping func-

to the main service panel in case a metal component

tions as the ground, and any sections of metal piping

becomes improperly energized. Bonding allows fault

have been replaced with plastic pipe, the grounding

current to trip the breaker and disconnect the power

system should be upgraded with a driven rod. The gas

to the circuit.

piping and other metallic interior piping should also

be bonded to the grounding system.

THE NEUTRAL/GROUND BUS

To ensure that the grounding is continuous along

In the main service panel, the ground wires attach

metal water piping, bonding jumpers must be used

to a neutral/ground bus bar, which is bonded to the

at the water heater, at gas meters, and at any point

metal panel housing via a main bonding jumper. If

where nonconductive materials could interrupt

there’s a ground fault in the house, the main bond-

electrical flow. When a dielectric union (see p. 155)

ing jumper ensures the current can be safely directed

is installed to prevent corrosion between, say, cop-

to the ground, away from the house and the people

per and galvanized steel pipes, continuity should be

inside. It is probably the single most important con-

restored by a bonding jumper wire that jumps around

nection in the entire electrical system.

the interruption. Though the jumper may reduce the

GROUNDING REQUIREMENTS

In a service panel, ground and neutral

A large copper ground wire bonded

The main water pipe (and metal gas

wires attach to a neutral/ground bus,

to the service panel is clamped to a

piping) must also be bonded to the

which is bonded to the panel box. (In

grounding electrode (rod).

grounding system, so that ground faults

subpanels, ground and neutral wires

can be safely discharged should pipes

and buses are electrically isolated

become energized.

from each other.)

138 ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

MAJOR GROUNDING ELEMENTS

The equipment-grounding system

acts as an expressway for stray

current. By bonding together

conductors or potential conductors,

Metal water pipes

the system provides a low-

impedance path for fault currents. In

Neutral/

a ground fault, the abnormally high

ground bus

Clamps

amperage (current flow) that results

trips a breaker or blows a fuse,

disconnecting power to the circuit.

Service

panel

The NEC requires the interior

Bonding

metal water piping and interior metal

jumper

gas piping be bonded so that if it

becomes energized, the breaker will

trip and cut power. An underground

metal water pipe may be used as

one of the grounding electrodes,

Main

and a grounding electrode run

bonding

Water

from the pipe to the panel within

jumper

heater

5 ft. of where the pipe enters the

Grounding

building. Proper grounding and

electrode

bonding reduces the chance that the

conductor

grounding path will be interrupted

if part of the piping is replaced with

Grounding

plastic. The primary grounding in

electrode

new construction is typically a Ufer

(ground rod)

(steel rebar in the concrete footing)

or a grounding rod driven into the

soil at the building exterior.

Clamps

Neutral/

Service

ground

panel

bus

Bonding

jumper

Grounding

Main

electrode

bonding

conductor

jumper

Water

heater

Grounding

electrode

Cold water

(ground rod)

bonding jumper

E L E C T R I C A L S Y S T E M S 139

Failed ground! The dielectric union between galva-

nized steel water piping and copper piping is designed

to keep the copper from corroding the steel piping.

However, the plastic separator inside the union also in-

terrupts the flow of electricity needed for a continuous

grounding system. One fix is adding a second ground

wire and clamp to the steel piping; another is installing a separate driven ground rod system.

ability of the dielectric union to prevent corrosion,

This loose (and undersize) ground wire is a trip haz-

electrical safety is a greater priority.

ard, which could also damage the ground. Properly

PROTECTING THE GROUND WIRE. The GEC

installed ground wires between the main panel and

the grounding rod must be mechanically protected by

that runs between the service panel and a ground rod

being secured to the siding and/or running through

or pipe should be protected against mechanical dam-

conduit.

age. The ground wire must be securely clamped to

the rod or pipe to ensure good electrical conduction.

The ground wire can be installed in conduit or can be

connects to the building’s equipment ground-

secured to the building surface to reduce the pos-

ing system at the service panel. As such, the GES’s

sibility of damage. When a metal conduit is used to

primary function is to provide a low impedance path

protect the ground wire, the conduit itself must also

to ground (earth), so that in the event of a fault in the be bonded to the grounding rod.

system, the fault current will pass through that low

PREVENTING TRIP HAZARDS. Ground rods

impedance path rather than through, say, someone

should be fully driven into the earth. If the rod has

using an electrical appliance inside the house.

been cut or not fully driven, it will not be as effective SIZING. The National Electrical Code requires

as it should be. It is possible to correct inadequate

grounding electrode conductor size to be based on

grounding by adding a second grounding rod. Also,

the sizes and types of conductors in the service.

the rod should be located away from walkways or

Typically, residential GECs are size 6 American wire

other areas where someone could trip over it. Ideally,

gauge (6 AWG) copper. Ground rods are typically

1

a rod should be driven into the bottom of a 1-ft.-deep

⁄2-in. or 5⁄8-in. copper-clad steel rods at least 8 ft.

hole that is then covered with gravel.

long. The Ufer or concrete-encased electrode is the

THE GROUNDING ROD. The grounding electrode

preferred grounding electrode and must be used if

system (GES)—commonly called ground rods—

present in new construction.

140 ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

inside—without touching them. You could turn

off power to receptacles to examine the condition

■■ Are the main service panel housing (box), neutral

wires, and grounding wires securely bonded

of circuit wiring. But most inspectors simply use a

(connected together) in the main service panel?

circuit analyzer (see p. 146) to determine if outlets are A main bonding jumper (p. 138) should bond the correctly wired.

neutral/ground bus to the service panel housing.

Deteriorated sheathing is a potential shock hazard,

■■ Do all ground and neutral wires in the main ser-

so note brittle fiber insulation and bare wire but avoid

vice panel attach securely to a neutral/ground

touching it. If cable sheathing has been chewed on by

bus? Are all bus lugs (screws) tight? Are there

any signs of corrosion, scorch marks, or melted

mice, rats, or squirrels, it should be replaced.

wire insulation where wires attach to lugs?

SECURING CABLE

■■ Is there a large (usually bare) copper ground wire

(the GEC) attached to a neutral/ground bus in

NM cable (cable protected by nonmetallic sheathing)

the service panel?

must be stapled within 8 in. of single-gang boxes that

■■ After it exits the service panel, does the GEC at-

don’t have cable clamps, and within 12 in. of other

tach to a driven ground rod or to an Ufer ground-

boxes, and supported by stapling or another method

ing electrode in the footing of the foundation?

at least every 41⁄2 ft. (54 in). A cable running through

■■ If the house is older, does the GEC from the ser-

a drilled hole in the framing is considered supported.

vice panel attach only to metal water pipes? If so,

Sagging wire is potentially hazardous because it can

is the metal piping continuous or is it interrupted

by sections of plastic pipe or other nonconduc-

tive materials?

■■ Are dielectric unions used to prevent corrosion

between galvanized steel and copper water pip-

ing? Because the plastic separator inside these

unions will interrupt the flow of electricity, a

bonding jumper must be installed to bypass the

union and be securely clamped to the piping on

both sides.

■■ Are gas pipes and other metallic interior piping

bonded to the grounding system?

■■ Does the bonding system include bonding jump-

ers to create a continuous bond at water heaters?

■■ Is the GEC protected from mechanical damage

where it runs between the service panel and a

ground rod or metal water pipe? If the GEC is

protected by metal conduit, is the conduit itself

bonded to the ground rod?

■■ Is the ground rod driven fully into the earth? Is

the ground rod a trip hazard?

Assessing Circuit Wiring

Circuit wiring may be visible as it nears electrical

As a general rule, Romex (nonmetallic) cable should

panels and as it runs through attics and basements.

be secured to framing within 12 in. of outlet or junction Although home inspectors do not typically remove

boxes. Wiring as loose and amateurish as that shown

here is a red flag that there are likely other wiring

the covers of junction boxes, doing so will allow you

mistakes lurking, some possibly hazardous, that a

to examine the condition of wires and wire splices

qualified electrician should investigate.

E L E C T R I C A L S Y S T E M S 141

Electrical conductors entering a metal box must be se-

cured by cable connectors (clamps), which are missing

Wire splices must take place in a covered box (unlike

here. Clamps prevent connections from being pulled

here), and Romex cable must be secured to framing

apart and protect wire insulation from being sliced by

within 12 in. of a junction box.

sharp box edges. Last, clamps should tighten down on

cable sheathing, not individual wires.

become strained, stressing the electrical connec-

COPALUM connectors or another listed and approved

tions. Likewise, all junction boxes should be securely

method.

mounted.

WIRE SPLICES

Electrical cables that run through holes drilled in

Wire splices (whether copper to copper, copper to

studs or joists must be at least 11⁄4 in. from the face

aluminum, or aluminum to aluminum) must be

of framing members to avoid being punctured by

housed within a covered junction box or outlet box.

nails or screws when finish surfaces are installed.

Wires that are spliced outside a box or inside an un-

Cables closer than 11⁄4 in. should be protected by

covered box can be a fire hazard because of the dan-

metal nail plates.

gers of arcing. Loose connections not contained in

All NM cable entering metal boxes must be gripped

a covered box can easily ignite combustibles nearby

by cable clamps. Single-gang plastic boxes do not re-

because arcs approach 2000°F.

quire the strain relief of cable clamps, but double-gang

(and larger) plastic boxes have integral plastic ten-

CABLE CLAMPS

sion clamps that provide some strain relief on cable.

Every wiring system, whether nonmetallic (Romex),

metal clad, or armor clad, has clamps (connectors)

ALUMINUM CIRCUIT WIRING

specific to that system. Clamps solidly secure cables

Small-gauge aluminum circuit wiring (10 gauge or

to boxes to protect connections inside the box, so

12 gauge) can be a fire hazard unless it is correctly

wire splices or connections to devices cannot get

spliced to a copper wire with a COPALUM® connector,

yanked apart or compromised. Cable clamps in metal

or terminated to CO/ALR-rated outlets and switches.

boxes also keep wires from being nicked by burrs

If it is incorrectly terminated in a copper-rated-only

created when metal box knockouts are removed.

device, the two metals will expand and contract at

different rates each time the circuit is under load.

KNOB-AND-TUBE WIRING

This can lead to loose connections, arcing, over-

Knob-and-tube wiring, although outdated, is usually

heating, and house fires. Aluminum-to-aluminum

safe unless individual wire insulation is deteriorated,

splices require special splicing techniques, either

142 ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

splices are incorrectly made, the wiring is overloaded,

or buried in thermal insulation. Typically, splices that

were part of the original installation will not be in

a junction box but must be wrapped with electrical

(friction) tape and supported by porcelain knobs on

both sides of each splice. Nonoriginal splices must be

housed in covered boxes. Have knob-and-tube wiring

assessed or modified by an electrician familiar with

it; it’s quirky stuff. The NEC does not allow knob-

and-tube wiring to be buried in insulation but several

states now allow buried knob-and-tube wiring to

encourage adding insulation for energy conservation.

Knob-and-tube is an outdated wiring method where porcelain They typically require that the wiring be examined by

knobs secure the wire and keep it from overheating wood at an electrician before it is covered.

framing holes. The splices shown here are not to code and not safe. Any changes in wiring types—such as splicing Romex

Knob-and-tube wiring lacks an equipment ground

cable to knob-and-tube—must occur in a box and are subject (a separate grounding wire), so it offers no protection

to other code specifics.

should a faulty appliance get plugged into a recep-

tacle. On the other hand, a knob-and-tube system is

run completely on insulators, which is a plus. The

■

■

Is there any apparently nonfunctional old wiring?

conductors of knob-and-tube wiring were copper,

It should be removed so that it is not mistakenly

spliced to newer (energized) wiring or energized

coated with a thin layer of tin (to protect the copper

by an old switch or panel.

from sulfur in the rubber wire insulation). Unin-

■

■

Does the house contain old knob-and-tube

formed inspectors often mistake the tinned copper

wiring? Is its insulation in good condition? Has

wire for aluminum wire.

the knob-and-tube wiring been spliced to new

EXTENSION OR ZIP-CORD WIRING ? NEVER !

wiring types? Are such splices contained in

Extension cords, lamp cord wiring (zip cord), and

covered boxes?

other temporary wiring should not be used for per-

■

■

In attics and other locations where old fiber-

sheathed wiring is visible, is wire insulation

manent installations. Such wiring should be replaced

brittle or cracked?

by a qualified electrician.

■

■

If you see extension cords or lamp cord used as

permanent wiring, write it up!

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

■■ Are wiring runs neat and workmanlike or do loose

Indoor Outlets

wires sag from joists?

An outlet is a location where electricity is used, such

■■ If electrical cable runs through joists or studs, is

as a duplex receptacle, a light, a fan, or a kitchen

it at least 11⁄4 in. back from the edges of framing

appliance.

members? If cables are closer than 11⁄4 in., are

metal nail protection plates used?

GENERAL-USE CIRCUIT REQUIREMENTS

■■ Do all electrical wire splices take place in covered

General-use circuits are intended primarily for light-

junction or outlet boxes? Write up any splices

outside boxes, boxes with no covers, or boxes

ing, but small loads that are connected via a cord

with missing (unfilled) knockouts.

and plug, such as televisions, fans, and vacuums,

are allowed—as long as the power they draw doesn’t

■■ Do any circuit wires entering metal outlet or junc-

tion boxes lack protective connectors?

exceed the capacity of the circuit.

E L E C T R I C A L S Y S T E M S 143

LIGHT SWITCHES. In new construction there

must be at least one wall switch that controls lighting

in each habitable room, in the garage (if wired for

electricity), and in storage areas (including attics and

basements). Near each exterior door with grade-level

access, there must be a switch controlling an outside

light. Three-way switches are required at each end of

a corridor and at the top and bottom of stairs with six

steps or more. When possible, switches should be

near lights they control. It should be noted that a

light switch may control a receptacle (considered

“lighting”) in habitable rooms, except in kitchens

and bathrooms.

Scorched receptacles warrant a closer look, with the

power turned off. Scorching may be caused by loose

GFCI PROTECTION. The NEC requires GFCI pro-

connections (arcing), overfusing (p. 133), overloaded tection for all bathroom receptacles, all receptacles

circuits, or in some older houses, overheated aluminum

circuit wiring. The extension plug suggests overload-

serving kitchen counters, all outdoor receptacles, re-

ing. An electrician should identify the cause and sur-

ceptacles in unfinished portions of basements, garage

vey the house for similar symptoms.

receptacles, and receptacles near pools and hot tubs.

(Check the most recent NEC for a complete listing.)

AFCI PROTECTION. Arc fault circuit interrupters

LIGHTING AND SMALL LOADS. Though

(AFCIs) are relatively new safety devices designed to

14-AWG wire is sufficient for lighting, electricians

detect electrical arcs from cracked, broken, or dam-

often run 12-AWG wire on general-use circuits to

aged electrical insulation and to shut off power to

accommodate future uses. Lighting loads are

the circuit before the arcing leads to a fire. They are

calculated at 3 watts per square foot, or roughly one

required in new construction for 15-amp and 20-amp

15-amp circuit for every 500 sq. ft. of floor space.

branch circuits having outlets in dwelling family

When laying out lighting circuits, an electrician

rooms, dining rooms, living rooms, parlors, librar-

should not put all the lights on a floor on one circuit.

ies, dens, bedrooms, sunrooms, recreation rooms,

Otherwise, should a breaker trip, the entire floor

closets, hallways, or similar rooms or areas. An

would be without lights.

outlet can be a lighting outlet or another point on the

RECEPTACLES. There must be a receptacle within

circuit where electrical equipment is supplied with

6 ft. of each doorway and located at least every 12 ft.

current. Hard-wired smoke alarms are outlets and

along each wall. (This is also stated as, “No space on a

require AFCI protection. It has been found that some

wall should be more than 6 ft. from a receptacle.”) Any

older knob-and-tube wiring may cause these new

wall at least 2 ft. wide must have a receptacle; and a

breakers to trip, and it may be necessary to replace

receptacle is required in hallway walls 10 ft. or longer.

such wiring for the new AFCIs to function properly.

In new construction, any foyer of more than 60 sq. ft.

New electrical codes now require AFCIs in accessible

must have a receptacle on any wall 3 ft. or longer.

kitchen and bathroom circuits.

OUTLETS. The NEC does not specify a maximum

NEW CONSTRUCTION REQUIREMENTS

number of lighting or receptacle outlets on a resi-

ROOM BY ROOM

dential lighting or appliance circuit, though local

Kitchen and bath appliances are heavy power users,

jurisdictions may. Figure roughly 9 outlets per

so their circuits must be sized accordingly.

15-amp circuit and 10 outlets per 20-amp circuit.

144 ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

BATHROOM CIRCUITS. Bathroom receptacles

must be supplied by one or more 20-amp circuits. The

NEC allows a 20-amp circuit to supply the receptacles

of more than one bathroom or to supply the recepta-

cles, lights, and fans (excluding heating fans) in one

bathroom. Receptacles in bathrooms must be GFCI

protected, either by a GFCI receptacle or a GFCI

breaker. If a bathroom does not have a window at

least 3 sq. ft., half of which is operable, a mechanical

exhaust fan must be provided.

SMALL-APPLIANCE CIRCUITS. There must be

at least two 20-amp small-appliance circuits in the

kitchen serving the kitchen countertops. No point

This light fixture is missing the porcelain ring that

along a kitchen countertop should be more than 2 ft.

protects bulb changers from touching the threaded

from an outlet—in other words, space countertop

metal fixture base. This fixture should be removed and

replaced with a florescent fixture whose cool bulbs are

receptacles at least every 4 ft. Every counter at least

more appropriate for use in a clothes closet.

12 in. wide must have a receptacle.

KITCHEN LIGHTING. Adequate lighting is

particularly important in kitchens so people can

nent ceiling light fixtures. (The latest electrical codes work safely and efficiently. Kitchen lighting should

now refer to all light fixtures as “luminaires”)

be a good balance of general and task lighting. Many

DEDICATED CIRCUITS. All critical-use and fixed

jurisdictions have energy-efficiency requirements for

(stationary) appliances should and in most cases must lighting in kitchens, but assessing lighting-code re-have their own dedicated (separate) circuits. These

quirements is not typically part of a home inspection.

fixed appliances include the water pump, freezer,

BATHROOM LIGHTING. It is important to

refrigerator, oven, cooktop, microwave, furnace and/

illuminate the face evenly in mirrors. Common

or whole-house air-conditioning unit, window air

practice is to place good-quality light sources either

conditioners, and water heater. Laundry room

above the vanity mirror or on either side of it. Many

receptacles must be on a dedicated circuit; so must an

jurisdictions also have energy-efficiency require-

electric clothes dryer.

ments for lighting in bathrooms, including the use

of high-efficacy lighting and vacancy sensors. Here

MISWIRED MISCELLANY

again, lighting code compliance is not part of a

Home inspectors come across certain wiring mis-

home inspection.

takes again and again. Fortunately, most are easy to

MISCELLANEOUS LIGHTING. Bare incandes-

detect and repair.

cent light bulbs should not be used as closet light

THREE-PRONG ADAPTERS IN TWO-HOLE

fixtures because they get hot and could ignite

OUTLETS. Three-prong adaptor plugs installed in a clothing and other combustibles. Fluorescent lights

two-hole outlet may not provide an effective ground

are a better choice, as they are cooler and require less

connection. To be sure safe grounding is present, the

clearance from storage areas. Old-style light fixtures

outlet should be rewired with a three-wire cable that

in which bulbs hang from a single lamp cord are

includes a ground wire; or the two-hole outlet can be

hazardous because hot wires can become frayed,

replaced with a GFCI receptacle.

creating a shock hazard. Homemade zip-wire or

UNGROUNDED THREE-HOLE OUTLET, aka an

extension cords should not be used to power perma-

open ground, is common in older buildings and typi-

E L E C T R I C A L S Y S T E M S 145

Circuit analyzers, sold in most hardware stores, can

GFCI receptacles have two sets of terminals, marked

check the wiring of all receptacles. “Open ground”

“line” and “load.” Cable attached to line terminals pro-

means that the third hole of the receptacle is not con-

tects the receptacle location; cable attached to load

nected, a common problem when an original two-hole

terminals provides current to and GFCI protection for

outlet has been replaced with a three-hole type.

outlets downstream (away from the power source).

cally occurs when two-hole receptacles are replaced

with three-hole types without adding a grounding

wire. Code requires that an ungrounded three-hole

outlet be labeled as such. Ideally, the outlet should

be rewired with a three-wire cable that includes a

ground wire or the two-hole outlet can be replaced

with a GFCI receptacle. A circuit analyzer will iden-

tify open grounds.

REVERSE POLARITY. Receptacles, plugs, and

fixtures are polarized so they can fit together only

one way. A receptacle’s brass screw terminal connects

to hot wires and, internally, to the hot (narrow) prong

Standard wall-mount receptacles should not be

of a polarized plug. The receptacle’s silver screw

installed in floors or in other horizontal surfaces; this terminal connects to neutral wires and, internally, to

outlet should be replaced with a special receptacle in a

proper floor-mounted box.

the neutral (wide) prong of a polarized plug. Finally,

the green ground screw connects to the ground wire

and the grounding prong of the plug. Reverse polar-

from the power source). If the line and load connec-

ity is a defect where the hot and neutral wires to an

tions are reversed (a common defect), the GFCI test

outlet are reversed. This potential safety hazard is

button will operate properly and downstream outlets

usually easily corrected. A circuit analyzer will iden-

may be protected but the GFCI outlet itself will be not

tify reverse polarity.

protected. To see if the GFCI receptacle is correctly

LINE-LOAD REVERSAL. GFCI receptacles have

wired, insert a circuit analyzer into the device and

two sets of terminals, marked “line” and “load.”

press the test button. If the button pops out yet there

Cable attached to the load terminals provides current

is still power at the receptacle, the most likely cause

to and GFCI protection for outlets downstream (away

is line-load reversal.

146 ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

IMPROPER FLOOR RECEPTACLES. Standard

wall-mount receptacles are not designed to support

ELECTRIC HEATER SAFETY

weight, so any installed in floors should be replaced

with special receptacles in floor-mounted boxes.

MISSING, DAMAGED, OR LOOSE COVER

Electric wall and baseboard heaters

should not be covered by draperies, furnishings, or

PLATES. All switches and outlets should have intact other items. Proper clearances vary by make and

cover plates to protect wiring connections in outlet

model. Consult the owner’s manual for clearance

boxes. Wall and ceiling light fixtures should also

requirements. Care should be taken to prevent elec-

have bases or canopies that protect wiring connec-

trical cords from falling into the heaters. In modern

tions. Any cover plates that are cracked, melted, or

construction, electrical outlets are not allowed

directly above a baseboard heater. Electric wall or

damaged should be replaced.

baseboard heaters may have hot surfaces, and bar-

riers may be needed to prevent small children from

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

contacting them.

■■ Are receptacles spaced at least every 12 ft. along

walls? Does every wall at least 2 ft. wide have a

receptacle? Do hallway walls at least 10 ft. long

have a receptacle?

■■ Does each habitable room have at least one wall

switch that controls lighting? Do the garage and

storage areas have a light switch?

■

■

Does a circuit analyzer indicate open grounds or

reversed polarity at any outlets?

■■ Does a switch control each outside light near an

exterior door with grade-level access? Are there

■

■

Are all GFCI receptacles correctly wired or do

three-way switches at each end of a corridor

some show line-load reversal? (Best to have a

and at the top and bottom of stairs with six steps

licensed electrician check and repair all if your

or more?

random inspection finds miswiring.)

■

■

Are standard wall-mount receptacles installed in

■■ Do all bathroom receptacles, kitchen-counter

receptacles, outdoor receptacles, receptacles in

floors?

unfinished portions of basements, and garage

■

■

Are cover plates on switches or outlets missing

receptacles have GFCI protection?

or damaged?

■■ Is there GFCI protection for receptacles near

pools and hot tubs?

Outdoor and Garage Outlets

■■ In homes built within the last decade, do all

Moisture is the biggest concern for electrical outlets

branch circuits in bedrooms and living spaces

located outdoors or in locations subject to damp-

have AFCI protection?

ness or open to the weather. Wiring, boxes, outlets,

■■ Are bathroom circuits supplied by 20-amp

circuits?

switches, and light fixtures that are exposed to

weather must be rated for such locations to prevent

■■ Are there at least two 20-amp circuits serving

kitchen countertops? Is there a countertop re-

water entry, hazards, or damage. Using NM (Romex)

ceptacle at least every 4 ft.? Does every counter

cable outside, for example, is a code violation.

at least 12 in. wide have a receptacle?

In addition, the NEC requires GFCI protection for

■■ Are critical-use and fixed appliances on dedi-

all outdoor receptacles, receptacles in unfinished

cated circuits?

portions of basements, garage receptacles, and

■■ Are extension cords used as permanent circuits?

receptacles near pools and hot tubs. (For a more

Are octopus plugs or three-plug adaptors used

to increase the number of appliances plugged

complete listing, see the most recent edition of the

into two-hole receptacles?

National Electrical Code.)

E L E C T R I C A L S Y S T E M S 147

Raintight (weatherproof) covers include a weatherproof-

in-use receptacle cover with adapter plates (left) and a

weatherproof box with a gasketed cover (right).

Exterior wall-mounted light fixtures are often not

Inspectors should also note the following issues.

properly caulked to the wall behind, which may allow

rain to enter the electrical box or soak wall framing.

OUTDOOR COVERS. Receptacles in damp or wet

Sealing this gap with a high-quality caulk will prevent

locations must be listed as weather-resistant types.

moisture entry at this location.

Electrical outlets in damp locations such as protected

(roofed) porches are required to have a gasketed

weatherproof cover. Receptacles in wet locations

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

require in-use covers.

■

■

Are outdoor or garage outlets GFCI protected—

CAULKING TO SIDING. Outlet boxes must be

by GFCI receptacles at the point of use or by

rated for exterior use and should be well caulked with

GFCI breakers that protect a whole circuit? (By

siliconized caulk to prevent water from entering

the way, GFCI breakers are less prone to nuisance

wiring-access holes behind outlet boxes. As is true

tripping by high ambient moisture, as some GFCI

with any outlet, exterior boxes should be solidly

receptacles are.)

■

■

attached.

Are all wiring, boxes, outlets, switches, and light

fixtures used outside exterior rated? Write up

GARAGE RECEPTACLES. Standard three-hole re-

any interior components (such as Romex) used

ceptacles may not be durable enough to withstand the

outside.

repeated plugging and unplugging of heavy appliance

■

■

Are receptacles used in damp or wet locations

plugs; heavy-duty nylon receptacles with reinforced

protected by outdoor covers?

yokes will last longer in garages and workshops.

■

■

Are outlet, switch, and light fixture boxes caulked

Because fuel and solvent fumes tend to collect near

to prevent water entry behind them?

garage floors, where an electrical spark could start a

■

■

Are garage receptacles at least 18 in. above the

fire, garage receptacles should be at least 18 in. above

garage floor?

■

■

garage floors—though this is not code required.

Are there walk or trail lights?

OUTDOOR LIGHTING. Low-voltage walk and trail

■

■

Are security light bulbs low enough to be un-

lights will decrease the chance of falling. Motion-

screwed by an intruder?

actuated security lights should be at least 10 ft. high,

to prevent an intruder’s unscrewing a bulb.

148 ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

CHAPTER 7

PLUMBING

A PLUMBING SYSTEM IS A LOOP OF SORTS, created by

supply (or delivery) pipes that carry potable water to

the house and its fixtures, and by DWV pipes, which

carry waste water, effluvia, and sewer gases away from

the fixtures—sinks, toilets, bidets, lavatories, washing

machines, and so on.

These two systems within a system are quite different

from each other. DWV pipes are larger and must slope so

waste can fall freely (by gravity) and sewage gases can rise and exit through vents. By contrast, smaller water supply pipes deliver water under pressure, so there’s no need to slope them.

THE WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM

Cold-water

trunk line

Over the years, rust accumulates inside steel pip-

ing and eventually affects water flow. House water

Branch

Hot-water

pressure may be good, but the low volume of water in

lines

trunk line

constricted pipes will cause flow to drop significantly,

Risers

sometimes to a trickle, when several fixtures are used

House

at the same time.

service

main pipe

Water Supply Piping

Main supply pipe

Water supply systems have many parts, but conceptu-

ally they’re simple. After a brief overview of supply

Water heater

system elements, we’ll get into the nitty-gritty of

inspecting it all.

SUPPLY PIPE OVERVIEW

The pipe that delivers water to a house (from a city

Originating at a service pipe from the street

water main or an individual well) is called the house

Originating at a service pipe from the street

(or from a well), the main supply pipe splits

(or from a well), the main supply pipe splits

service main, or just house main. In cold regions,

at a T-fitting, with one leg feeding cold-

at a T-fitting, with one leg feeding cold-

the house main runs below the frost line and enters

water trunk lines and the other entering the

water trunk lines and the other entering the

water heater to emerge as the hot-water

water heater to emerge as the hot-water

the building through its foundation. Typically, a 1-in.

trunk line.

trunk line.

house main is controlled by a main shutoff valve after

it enters a building; municipal hookups may enter a

water meter first.

On the other side of the shutoff valve, the house

main continues as the main cold water supply, com-

tubes) run from branch lines to fixtures. Risers are

3

monly 3⁄4 in. in diameter. At some point, the main

⁄8 in. dia. or 1⁄2 in. dia. and connect to fixtures with

supply pipe enters a tee fitting, where it splits. One

threaded fittings. By decreasing in diameter as they

leg continues on as a cold water trunk line and the

get farther from the trunk lines, supply pipes help

other feeds into the water heater, where it emerges

maintain constant water pressure.

as the hot water trunk line. From the 3⁄4-in. hot and

NOTE : Because many fixtures supply hot and cold

cold trunks run various 1⁄2-in. branch lines that serve

water, hot water and cold water pipes usually run par-

fixture groups. Finally, individual risers (supply

allel throughout the house. But they should be kept at

150 PLUMBING

least 6 in. apart so they don’t transfer heat (or cold) to each other; insulating hot water pipes will conserve

heat too.

PIPE TYPES. Before the 1950s, supply pipes were

usually galvanized steel, joined by threaded fittings,

but steel pipes corrode and corrosion constricts

flow. (Threaded brass was used less often because

it was more expensive.) Consequently, rigid copper

piping, which corrodes more slowly, soon replaced

galvanized steel. Joined by sweat fitting (soldering),

copper was also easier to install and has been the

dominant supply piping since the 1950s.

In the 1970s and 1980s, several types of rigid plastic

The main water shutoff valve should be in an acces-

pipes were introduced for indoor water supply, with

sible location so residents can find and shut it off if

mixed success. PB (polybutylene) piping was plagued

there is a serious water leak. Single-lever ball valves

are much easier to operate than this old twist type, so

by deterioration and leaks and so was discontinued,

it would be advisable to replace it.

PVC is allowed as drainpipe but not as supply, and

chlorinated polyvinyl chloride (CVPC) supply pipe is

accepted by some building codes and spurned by

Water meter locations vary. Some are located in

others. (One suspects a bit of acronym fatigue.)

the unpaved area next to the front sidewalk (near

These days, it looks like King Copper will finally be

the curb valve), whereas others are located in a side

dethroned by flexible cross-linked polyethylene (PEX)

yard near where the service pipe enters the house.

piping. In contrast to the trunk-and-branch distribu-

Most often, however, water meters are located inside

tion common to rigid piping, PEX tubing systems

the house where the house main emerges, near a

feature a 3⁄4-in. main water line that feeds into a

foundation wall. (That length of piping is sometimes

manifold, out of which small supply lines run directly

called the inlet.) Meters measure total consumption,

to fixtures. Because it doesn’t rely on large pipes to

so they are located before the water main branches to

distribute water, PEX delivers hot water quickly to

become cold and hot water trunk lines.

fixtures, saving water and energy. And as copper gets

There should also be a main shutoff valve inside

ever more expensive, PEX looks better and better. We

or outside of the house, which enables the resident

talk more about PEX on p. 156.

to shut off water to the whole house should there be

a serious leak or the water supply system needs to be

MORE ABOUT WATER MAINS

worked on.

AND METERS

Most homes get water from a utility company, so

INSPECTION POINTS

here’s what inspectors typically encounter. Utility

The inspector needs to determine the location, size,

water mains run from the street to the property line

composition, and condition of the observable service

for each house, where a curb valve (shutoff valve)

piping. There may be other devices present, such as

controls the supply to the house. If a resident doesn’t

pressure regulators or antisyphon valves, which we’ll

pay the water bill, the utility shuts the curb valve.

discuss in the next section.

The supply pipe that runs from the curb valve to the

MAIN WATER SHUTOFF VALVES should be

house—the house service main—is the homeowner’s

accessible so that the water can be turned off quickly

responsibility.

in an emergency, and of course, they should be in

P L U M B I N G 151

good working order. In reality, home inspectors

though take care not to nick it. The house main will

must frequently hunt to find inlet pipes or shutoff

most likely be galvanized iron or brass (a magnet

valves, and when they do, the valves are frequently so

can distinguish between the two), copper, or in older

encrusted with paint that they can’t be turned. Scrap-

homes, lead. Some utilities install plastic piping,

ing the paint off valve spindles usually frees them but

which is easily distinguishable from metal pipe once

replacing an old valve with a single-lever ball valve is

a small area of paint is removed. (Look also where

money well spent because the valve opens (and shuts)

plastic service pipe emerges from the soil, it is usu-

with a quarter turn.

ally not painted there.)

HOUSE MAINS should be at least 3⁄4 in. inner

PIPE CONDITION is most often revealed by

diameter (I.D.), with 1 in. I.D. desirable. If you use

corrosion or leaking at pipe fittings and valves,

calipers to measure the outside of a 1-in.-I.D. pipe

though badly deteriorated supply pipes may also

(measure the pipe, not a fitting), you should get a

show pinhole leaks along their lengths. If supply

11⁄4-in. outer diameter (O.D.) reading. Houses with

pipes are galvanized steel (50+ years old), it’s more

main pipes less than 3⁄4 in. I.D. will experience

or less a given that they should be replaced, especially

reduced flow when several fixtures are used at the

if rust is widespread and water flow is poor. If supply

same time.

systems contain both galvanized steel and copper,

THE TYPE OF PIPE may be difficult to determine

corrosion will be accelerated even if dielectric unions

if the house main is buried or encrusted with paint.

have been installed where steel pipes meet copper.

Scrape off a bit of paint to expose the bare pipe,

Dilute copper in the water system will accelerate

galvanic action (corrosion) inside the steel pipes

and hasten their end.

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

■

■

Is house water supplied by a utility company or

LEAD SERVICE PIPES

a private well? If a private well, a qualified well

specialist should check the well equipment and

Lead service pipe is easily recognizable

flow rate at the time of purchase. Water qual-

because it is soft. When scraped with a metal edge,

ity should also be checked annually by the local

the exposed pipe surface will be silver gray. Lead pipe

health department. Residents can also take a

joints also have distinctive shapes, as they balloon

sample and send it to a laboratory for testing.

(bulge) gently. Typically there will be a bulge joint

■

■

If a utility supplies the water, locate the water

where the lead pipe emerges near the foundation, or

meter and check for leakage or corrosion.

where the pipe joins a water meter.

■

■

Locate the house main and measure its outer

Water-supply systems with lead inlet pipes should

diameter. Is the pipe’s inner diameter at least

be tested by the local health authority; such tests

3⁄4 in.? What is the pipe made of?

are typically free or low cost. Lead is a neurotoxin,

■

■

If the house main is lead, write it up; it should be

so although lead water pipes may leech minuscule

replaced. Lead is a known health hazard.

amounts into the water supply, over time the cumu-

■

■

lative health effects of drinking lead-tainted water

Locate the main shutoff valve for the house. Is

could be serious. So homeowners should have the

it accessible? Does its handle turn freely so that

water analyzed and the lead service pipe should be

water can be shut off quickly in an emergency? If

replaced. Because service pipes are typically the

the pipe is encrusted with paint and hard to turn,

homeowners’ responsibility, they often assume

note that on your report.

replacement costs.

152 PLUMBING

To determine house water pressure, screw a pressure

Water pressure regulators are designed to lower ex-

gauge onto an outside faucet and turn the faucet on.

cessive pressures that can damage attached fixtures

Water pressure typically ranges from 40 psi to 80 psi,

and appliances. Regulators are common where the

so this reading is on the high end of normal.

neighborhood water pressure is over 80 psi.

WATER PRESSURE AND FLOW

corrosion inside supply pipes. The mineral content

While surveying the exterior of the house, check the

of the water may be a factor in how quickly deposits

water pressure by screwing a water pressure gauge

form inside supply pipes, but more often the key

onto an outside faucet, then turn the faucet on.

indicator is the pipe material itself.

Pressures between 40 psi and 80 psi are in the

As was noted earlier, galvanized steel supply piping

normal range. Low pressure may be a result of the

was widely installed till the 1950s, which, at this writ-

building’s location in relation to the utility’s reservoir ing, was 60 years or 70 years ago. In the best of condi-or because the utility service pipe is constricted. The

tions, that would be the outer limits of galvanized

local utility company can usually be contacted to

pipe life, so if there is galvanized pipe anywhere in

determine what pressure is provided to a particular

the supply system, it is almost certainly the cause of

street and address.

low flow.

If the water pressure exceeds 80 psi, a water

To test water flow, test cold water faucets and hot

pressure regulator should be installed to lower the

water faucets separately. Open at least two cold water

excess pressure, which can damage pipe fittings,

faucets and flush a toilet at the same time. If piping

valves, fixtures, and appliances. The regulator has an

is constricted, flow from the faucets should decrease

adjustment screw to raise or lower the water pres-

dramatically. Make a note if it does. Do the same by

sure. Regulators should be on the house side of the

opening several hot water faucets and running a hot

main shutoff valve. Modern regulators should have a

shower. If hot water flow is dramatically less, the

sand screen to prevent the regulator from becoming

problem may be exacerbated by mineral deposits in

clogged. Such screens require routine cleaning to

the water heater. The effective life of a water heater is prevent a reduction in available water flow.

10 years to 15 years in the best of conditions.

LOW FLOW. Water pressure and water flow are

To recap, even a small section of constricted pipe

not the same thing. If water pressure is low, the flow

can affect the flow to a number of fixtures, so survey

will be low, but it is possible to have normal pressure

as much of the water supply piping as you can, not-

and low flow, usually because of mineral buildup or

ing not only the type of pipe and its diameter but its

P L U M B I N G 153

condition as well. In addition to corroded galvanized

steel piping, kinked copper tubing or too-tight bends

can also reduce water flow.

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

■■ What is the water pressure? If it is between

40 psi and 80 psi, it is within normal range.

■■ If the pressure is excessive, is there a water

pressure regulator on the house side of the main

shutoff valve? The regulator could be faulty.

■■ Is water flow adequate when several faucets are

open? Test both cold water and hot water.

■■ Scan water supply piping for outdated galva-

This dielectric union has a plastic washer inside to

nized steel piping, kinked copper tubing, or

prevent direct contact between the copper and galva-

bends that are tight enough to constrict and

nized steel piping. Nonetheless, over time, dilute cop-

reduce water flow.

per in the water will corrode the steel piping. The only

long-term solution is replacing the steep piping.

SURVEYING SUPPLY PIPE

Now that you have determined the water pressure,

Crawl spaces, unfinished basements, and attics are

tested water flow, and identified possible constric-

good places to inspect supply pipes, as is the top of

tions, survey supply piping throughout the house. Of

the water heater, where pipes attach. Cabinets under

course, many supply pipes will be hidden in the walls,

sinks and lavatories frequently house supply risers

but by inspecting them where they are visible, you’ll

and shutoff valves. In older homes, there is frequently

get a good sense of what’s there, how carefully it was

an access panel on the back side of a tub’s water wall

installed, and how much longer it will be serviceable.

(where pipes are grouped). Access panels are usually

small (2 ft. sq.) and frequently tucked into a closet

or a hallway; panels are usually held in place by a

screw in each corner. Once the panel is removed you

can see the head of the tub, an overflow-and-drain

assembly, and supply risers that go up to a shower

ONE APPROACH TO

diverter valve.

IMPROVING FLOW

LOOK FOR SUPPORT. Regardless of the pipe

material, supply pipes must be adequately supported.

To repair major flow restriction, it

Inadequately supported pipe puts stress on joints

may be necessary to replace all galvanized piping.

and fittings. Horizontal runs of copper supply pipe

But homeowners may want to try replacing some

of the pipes first. It may be sufficient to replace

should be supported at least every 6 ft., but if pipes

exposed horizontal hot water piping before go-

run perpendicular to joists, plumbers usually secure

ing to the extra expense of opening up interior

the pipe every second or third joist. Horizontal runs

walls to replace the vertical piping within them.

of CPVC supply pipe should be supported every 3 ft.

It may also be cost-effective to install new piping

PEX tubing should be supported every 32 in. on hori-

whenever old piping is exposed, such as when new

shower walls are installed.

zontal runs. In most cases, however, eyeballing pipe

is sufficient: If pipe runs sag or you can sway pipes by

touching them, they need more support.

154 PLUMBING

PIPE REPAIRS generally don’t last, so leaking

or otherwise defective pipes or fittings should be

replaced. Occasionally, one sees plastic pipe cement

WATER SOFTENERS

slathered onto a pipe or rubberized patches held on

with, say, ring clamps but chances are the pipe still

The functionality of water softeners

leaks. To get a sense of how long the condition has

or water treatment systems is not typically included

persisted, look for water damage nearby.

in a home inspection. If hard water is common to

GALVANIZED STEEL PIPE has been discussed

the area or you see conditions, such as degraded

at length, so suffice it to say that it’s probably time

copper supply pipes, that suggest hard-water prob-

to replace it—all of it. Galvanized pipes tend to fail

lems, have the water quality tested to determine if

treatment is advisable.

(rust out or corrode) at fittings first. When galva-

nized steel is joined to copper pipe, a dielectric union

should be used to join the dissimilar metals. But

again, dielectric unions just slow the rate of corrosion; dilute copper in the water will continue the elec-

trolysis inside the galvanized pipe. When corrosion

is far advanced, galvanized steel piping may also rust

and split along its lengths.

NOTE : When water pipes are bonded (see p. 138),

a copper jumper wire should be clamped to pipe on

both sides of the dielectric union to ensure a continu-

ous electrical ground.

COPPER PIPE is very durable, with copper water

supply systems expected to last 100 years as long as

the water chemistry is favorable. In fact, about the

only thing that shortens copper’s life is very hard

Polybutylene (PB) water supply piping is no longer

used because chemicals in water supplies (such as

(acidic) water, which can pit the inside of copper pipe

chlorine) cause the piping to deteriorate. Leaking is

and in time produce pinhole leaks. If you observe

usually apparent around fittings first. PB piping should

pinhole leaks and excessive blue-green deposits at

be replaced.

fittings, the water should be analyzed. As with most

rigid piping, if failure occurs, it is most common at

deteriorated due to adverse reactions with oxidants

fittings. On occasion, an inspector will observe leaky

in the water supply, such as chorine. The damage

copper joints with excessive solder—the mark of an

took time to become manifest because the deteriora-

inexpert plumber. One or two passes should draw the

tion began inside the piping, but eventually the PB

solder into the joint and create a tight seal; too much

became brittle, split, and leaked. If your inspection

solder actually creates a weaker joint. Inspectors in

finds PB piping, prospective buyers should be warned

cold regions should scrutinize copper pipes for splits

that it will probably need to be replaced. The period

or fractures, especially if a house has been uninhab-

for filing PB-related claims has passed.

ited and unheated for a while as freezing water can

CPVC SUPPLY PIPE. Most plumbing codes allow

split pipes.

CPVC for hot and cold water lines, but check with

POLYBUTYLENE is a gray plastic water supply

local authorities to be sure. CPVC is a good choice for

pipe widely installed in the United States from 1978

hard-water areas, because, unlike copper, CPVC won’t

to 1995. Unfortunately, the piping and its fittings

be corroded by chemicals in the water.

P L U M B I N G 155

During your inspection scrutinize the crimped fit-

tings that join tubing to manifold nipples and adap-

tors to fixtures.

Two things inspectors should note: First, PEX can

break down when exposed to direct sunlight (within

30 days to 90 days), so it must be installed and

covered quickly. Manifold assemblies are typically

located in basement rooms with a door, to minimize

exposure to sunlight. Second, although PEX can

withstand high water temperatures, it will melt when

exposed to open flame. It must not be directly con-

nected to gas- or oil-fired water heaters and must be

kept away from flue pipes, recessed lights, and other

sources of excessive heat.

PEX flexible plastic tubing is becoming more popular

because it is easier to install than rigid copper. Shutoff valves are clustered at an accessible manifold installed

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

in a laundry or bathroom wall compartment, rather

than in hard-to-access locations beneath individual

■

■

Are supply pipes adequately supported?

fixtures.

■

■

Are hot and cold water supply pipes at least

6 in. apart?

■

■

Write up any leaks, corroded pipes, or temporary

NOTE : CPVC is a different material from PVC,

patches you find. Pipe joints and fittings usually

which is widely used as drain and waste pipe; PVC

leak first.

may not be used as supply pipe, however, because it

■

■

Are supply pipes all the same material or has the

releases carcinogens.

supply system been pieced together out of dif-

ferent materials?

PEX is a flexible tubing system that’s been used in

■

■

If the supply system contains galvanized steel

Europe for radiant heating and household plumbing

pipe and copper, do the different pipes con-

since the 1960s. It wasn’t widely used in potable-

nect directly or are dielectric unions used? Are

water systems in North America until the late 1990s.

connections corroded? Does a copper jumper

But within 5 years it had captured 7% of the market,

wire clamp to both sides of any union to ensure a

even though it was unfamiliar to most plumbers and

continuous ground?

■

■

cost roughly the same as copper. Every year PEX gains

If copper supply pipe shows excessive blue-

green deposits around fittings and pinhole leaks

a larger share of residential installations, and it is

elsewhere, hard (acidic) water is probably the

now approved by all major plumbing codes, though

cause. Water should be tested.

not by all states. As PEX tubing, tools, and techniques

■

■

If there is rigid plastic supply pipe present, is it a

become more widespread, more and more weekend

code-approved plastic?

plumbers will be installing it. And as global prices

■

■

If PEX piping is used, is it protected from sunlight

for copper continue to soar, PEX will become ever

and UV degradation?

more popular.

■

■

In cold regions, supply pipes in unheated areas

PEX tubing runs to fixtures from hot and cold

such as crawl spaces and garages may split and

leak if water is left in them. Do you see signs of

water manifolds with multiple takeoffs. Most of

previous leaks or water damage?

the fitting is simple, consisting of crimping steel or

copper rings onto tubing ends. Because most leaks

occur at joints, fewer fittings also mean fewer leaks.

156 PLUMBING

UNDERGROUND LAWN SPRINKLER SYSTEMS

should also have antisyphon devices (vacuum break-

ers) on every water supply line. Because spray heads

on sprinkler systems routinely sit at or slightly under

ground level, they are frequently immersed in dirty

water, which could get fouled by fertilizer or other

contaminants. Should a drop in house water pressure

reverse the water flow in supply lines, contaminated

water could be sucked into supply pipes that contain

house drinking water. Vacuum breakers on sprinkler

systems must be at least 6 in. above the highest sprin-

kler head on the system. For convenience, vacuum

breakers are usually located next to the house, along

a foundation wall.

Backflow prevention devices are often required when

there is a potential hazard for a cross-connection, in

Inspectors should also survey sprinkler systems

which contaminated water could be drawn into the

for leaks, broken heads, and PVC plastic supply pipe

water supply. These devices need periodic mainte-

nance, including removing any trapped debris.

exposed above ground. Sunlight’s UV rays degrade

PVC plastic, so sprinkler system piping made of

PVC should be kept painted or placed entirely

OUTDOOR FAUCETS AND PIPING

underground.

Inspectors don’t usually spend much time on outdoor

supply piping, but faucets and sprinkler systems

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

deserve some time because either can be damaged by

■

■

Do outdoor faucets in cold regions have freeze-

freezing temperatures or allow cross-contamination

resistant faucets?

(mixing of potable and contaminated water) if incor-

■

■

Do outdoor faucets (in all regions) have anti-

rectly detailed.

syphon devices to prevent cross-contamination

FREEZE-RESISTANT OUTDOOR FAUCETS

of the house water supply?

(hose bibs) won’t freeze if a resident forgets to drain

■

■

Does the lawn sprinkler system have an anti-

outdoor water lines before temperatures drop below

syphon device (vacuum breaker) at least 6 in.

freezing. Typically, such faucets have a stem that ex-

above the highest sprinkler head on the system?

tends into a heated area of the house. The stem slopes

■

■

Scrutinize lawn sprinkler systems for broken pop-

downward toward the heated area so it naturally

up heads, leaks, and exposed PVC piping.

drains, and on the bottom of the stem is a valve that

shuts off water flow. Devices vary, but most also have

Water Supply at Fixtures

an antisyphon device that screws to the faucet spout.

A home inspector should operate every plumbing fix-

The antisyphon device prevents water from being

ture because there is a lot of information to be gotten

drawn back into the faucet and freezing, but it also

there. The following sections offer a stripped-down

serves the important function of preventing con-

list of conditions to look for; for more information

taminated water from being drawn back through the

about bathroom and kitchen fixtures, see Chapter 12.

garden hose, should a drop in water pressure cause a

reversal of water flow. Point being, even if the house

WATER FLOW

is in a temperate region, outdoor faucets should at

Turning on hot and cold water at individual fixtures

least have an antisyphon device.

will help you fine-tune your survey of where the sup-

P L U M B I N G 157

ply system is constricted. You may find, for example,

IS THERE AN AIR GAP?

that though trunk lines have been upgraded, the ris-

There should be an air gap between the top of the

ers to individual fixtures were not replaced. Inade-

sink, lavatory, or tub and the opening of the fixture

quate flow and rust stains on fixture surfaces usually

spout. Otherwise, when the fixture is full, the spout

indicate galvanized piping that needs to be replaced.

would be underwater and back-syphoning could

If the water supply comes from a private well, you

occur. That is, the waste water in the sink or tub

may find that the flow pulses. If so, the system’s pres-

could flow back into the water supply system. This is

sure tank may be waterlogged (see p. 175).

another example of cross-contamination.

FIXTURE AND TAP CONDITION

WATER HAMMERING

Note fixtures that are stained, chipped, or cracked

If you turn faucets off suddenly, you may hear a

and taps that are hard to operate or missing parts.

metallic banging or knocking noise, called water

Standing water at the base of a faucet handle usually

hammering. Because water cannot be compressed,

indicates a worn washer; itself an easy repair, but if it when a faucet is suddenly closed, moving water slams

has been leaking for a long time, there may be water

against the pipe, which may then hit wood framing.

damage in the cabinet under the lavatory or sink.

In a well-plumbed house, fixture supply pipes will

terminate in air chambers or antiknock coils that

STAINS AND DEPOSITS

cushion the oncoming water. Air hammering is an-

Blue-green deposits in tubs, lavatories, or the toilet

noying, but is not considered serious. Remedying it,

tank or bowl are probably caused by hard (acidic)

however, can be costly because it means opening the

water dissolving the insides of copper pipes. In time

walls, altering pipes, and patching walls.

this condition will damage the supply system, so resi-

dents should have the water analyzed and, as needed,

HOT WATER CONCERNS

install an acid-neutralizing filter or water softener

At each fixture with a hot water supply, allow the

on the house main. White deposits on kitchen and

water to run till hot water issues from the tap. If the

bath faucets suggest hard water reacting to metal in

water from the spigot takes a long time to get hot,

the faucets.

supply pipes may be running through an unheated

area; insulating the pipes will reduce heat loss. If

there is a popping sound when hot water runs, that

noise may be caused by pipe support straps that are

too tight: as the pipes expand from the heated water,

they may snag and then suddenly release.

DANGER: STEAM ALERT!

EXCESSIVELY HOT WATER

If you ever observe steam—not water—

Hot water supply that is too hot (or not hot enough)

coming from a faucet or showerhead, leave the faucet

can usually be corrected by adjusting the thermo-

open, leave the house immediately, and call a

stat on the water heater. Typically, water heaters are

plumber from a phone outside the house. Quite likely,

set at 120°F. If turning up the thermostat doesn't

the water heater’s TPR valve has failed and the unit

may be about to explode. This is an extremely

produce hot enough water, or enough hot water, the

dangerous situation.

unit's anode rod(s) may need replacing, a relatively

inexpensive fix.

158 PLUMBING

■

■

Is there standing water at the base of faucet

handles after operating them? Any signs of water

damage in cabinets below?

■

■

Is there an air gap between the top of every fix-

ture and the opening of its spout?

■

■

Do supply pipes hammer when you close faucets

suddenly?

■

■

Does it take a long time for hot water to reach

some faucets? Are hot water pipes insulated?

■

■

How hot does the water get at each faucet?

■

■

Is there an angle stop for each supply riser?

■

■

Do toilets whistle while they work? Does water

continue to run after the tank has filled?

It is common to find leaky under-sink supply valves

and angle stops. This valve and possibly the attached

Water Heaters

piping need to be replaced; a short threaded brass

pipe would be a better wall connection.

In most homes, a tank-type water heater produces hot

water for bathing, laundry, and other household uses;

though tankless water heaters are becoming more

ANGLE STOPS

common. We should note from the onset that water

heated to 120°F is adequate for most tasks. Setting a

Every fixture supply riser should have an angle stop

water heater thermostat higher, say, to 140°F, risks

(shutoff valve). Angle stops are helpful if one needs to

scalding users, wastes energy, and shortens the life

repair or renovate a fixture. Because angle stops are

of the unit. (Dishwashers have integral heating ele-

not used much they tend to seize up, so many inspec-

ments that boost water temperatures inside the unit for tors don’t try to see if they work.

more effective cleaning.)

WHISTLING TOILETS

HOW LONG WILL IT LAST?

If you hear a whistling sound as a toilet refills, the fill How long a water heater will last depends on several

valve should be adjusted. Ditto, if water continues to

factors, including its type—electric, gas, or oil—how

run after the tank is full.

long it has been in service, how high it has been set,

MEANWHILE, UNDER THE SINK

how well it has been maintained, and what the water

While you’re inspecting fixture water supply pipes,

conditions are.

have a look at their drains, too. If you see drips, pots

LONGEVITY BY TYPE. On average, electric

to catch drips, makeshift repairs, or nonstandard

water heaters last longer (10 years to 15 years) because

drain assemblies, you should probe the area for water

their heating elements are immersed in the water

damage (see also p. 172).

being heated, whereas oil- and gas-fired units apply

flame to the bottom of a tank and thus heat the water

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

inside by conduction. Open flame is hard on metal

because it expands each time it is heated and con-

■■ If some fixtures have lower flow than others, note

tracts each time it cools. So oil- and gas-fired units

them on your report and try to explain why. If

there’s a private well, pulsating flow may indicate

often get only 8 years to 10 years before they start

a waterlogged pressure tank.

leaking. The actual lifespan depends much more on

the amount of use and maintenance effectiveness

■■ Note stained, chipped, or cracked fixtures and

faucets that are hard to turn or missing parts.

than on a particular unit’s age in years.

P L U M B I N G 159

HOW OLD IS IT? Once you know how long the

unit should last, find out when it was installed.

A stamped metal data plate atop the water heater

typically contains the capacity of the unit, a serial

number, and a date of manufacture. The date of

manufacture is not always obvious: It may be stated

clearly or may be part of a serial number (0499, for

example, may indicate that it was made in April 1999).

A plumbing parts supplier may be able to explain the

code or you can contact the manufacturer directly.

The actual date of installation is trickier because the

unit may have sat in a distributor’s warehouse for

a year or two. Ask the homeowner for installation

records. Installing a water heater usually requires a

permit, so the local building department may also

Storage-type water heaters usually have a drain valve

have a record, if a permit was pulled.

that should be opened periodically to remove deposits

WHAT’S THE THERMOSTAT SETTING ? As we

that collect in the bottom of the tank. Deposits can

cause overheating above the flame and shorten the

noted, running a water heater at higher temperatures

useful life of the water heater.

can shorten its life. So read the thermostat setting. If

it’s 140°F or above (!), it may have been compromised.

Granted, its current setting may not have been what

sign that there’s a lot of sediment in the bottom of

it was set at for most of its operating life, but a higher the tank.

setting suggests either that the unit has been cooked

Draining the tank periodically reduces sediment,

or that its setting has been boosted recently because

but eventually deposits harden. Ideally, water heaters

it is not delivering hot enough water.

should be drained annually. Owners should attach

WATER CONDITIONS. Hard (acidic) water tends

a garden house to the valve near the bottom of the

to shorten the life of water heaters. Typically, water

tank, turn off the water supply, and then open the

heaters contain anode rods that react with minerals

valve until the water runs clear.

in the water, so that corrosion accretes to (builds

It is not unusual to find a sheet metal pan beneath

up on) the rods rather than to the tank lining. If a

the water heater to collect any leakage from the tank

middle-aged water heater is not recovering fast

or the TPR valves. Such pans should have drain piping

enough or generating enough hot water, replacing

that leads to an approved drainage location. It is a

the anode rod(s) usually does the trick.

good idea to install a moisture sensing alarm in the

SEDIMENT BUILDUP. In time, mineral deposits

pan or on the floor near the water heater to notify oc-

and sediment will build up in the bottom of a tank. In

cupants of any water leakage or TPR discharge.

gas- and oil-fired units, solid matter in the bottom of

the tank acts as an insulator between the open flame

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

and the water, which wastes energy because the water

■

■

What type of water heater is it? What is the Btu

takes longer to heat. This sediment accumulation can

capacity of the unit? How many gallons?

also lead to premature leakage and failure as it causes

■

■

Find out when the unit was installed, either from

the base of the tank to overheat. When an older water

homeowner records or code permit or by adding

heater fires up, an inspector will sometimes hear the

a year or two to the manufacture data on the

data plate.

tank rumbling. It’s nothing to fear but is a definite

160 PLUMBING

■■ What is the thermostat setting?

the tank. In other words, the threaded body of

■■ What are the prevailing water conditions in

the valve must screw directly into the tank. A TPR

the area?

valve should not be mounted above the tank (as

■■ You may want to drain a bit of water from the

shown in the right photo below) or installed in either

tank: Is it clear or turbid? Does the tank rumble

the hot water outlet pipe or the cold water inlet pipe.

when the burner kicks on? Draining water can

Even if the valve is in good working order, it can-

cause the valve to drip afterward. It’s a good idea

to carry a few small threaded caps for use if a

not offer full protection from an incorrect location

valve leaks after use.

because the probe cannot sense the hottest water in

the tank.

TPR VALVE

DISCHARGE PIPE. To avoid scalding someone

All water heaters must have a TPR valve to protect

standing near the tank should a TPR valve open, a

residents from a tank that could explode. If the

discharge pipe attached to the valve should terminate

thermostat fails and the energy source stays on, the

not more than 6 in. above the floor. The discharge

water temperature and pressure will continue to rise.

pipe must be rigid piping with the same diameter (at When the pressure exceeds the capacity of the tank,

least 3⁄4 in.) as the valve. (A smaller pipe may not allow around 300 psi, the tank bursts and the superheated

pressure to discharge quickly enough.) There should

water flashes to steam with explosive force. The

be a pan or bucket beneath the opening of the pipe

steam expands to over 1,600 times the volume of the

so that the resident can see the discharged water.

liquid water and turns the water heater into an

When a TPR valve discharges, it indicates a condition

unguided missile. Exploding heaters have been

(such as excess pressure or too high temperatures)

known to reach heights of 500 ft. and lift houses off

that needs to be checked. If discharge water emp-

their foundations.

ties down a drain or a utility sink, the resident won’t

SENSOR PROBE. Each TPR valve has a sensor

know about the potential problem and could be

probe that should extend into the top 6 in. of water in

burned by a high-pressure steam discharge.

All water heaters must have a TPR valve. The valve’s

The TPR valve at the left has a temperature probe be-

sensor probe must extend into the top 6 in. of water in

low that should extend into the top of the water heater

the tank, where the water is hottest.

tank. Mounting the valve well above the tank as it is

here will cause it to malfunction and not release under

excessively hot water conditions.

P L U M B I N G 161

SUPPLEMENTAL

EXPANSION TANKS

The problem of a TPR valve leaking

because of relatively minor fluctuations in water

heater tank pressure can be solved by adding a water

expansion tank. Required for new installations in

some areas, expansion tanks are designed to absorb

the increased volume of water created by thermal

expansion; such tanks also help maintain a balanced

pressure throughout the water supply system. They

prevent plumbing system and/or water heater damage

and unnecessary TPR valve discharge.

TPR discharge piping should be at least 3⁄4 in. in diam-

eter. Outdated copper tubing such as this should be

replaced.

defective and should be replaced. But leaks may also

result from minor spikes in tank pressure as when

barometric pressures are low. In time, minor leaks

can allow debris in the water to keep the valve from

closing fully. The experts offer conflicting advice:

Some favor opening the valve periodically to flush

out debris and others advise replacing any valve that

leaks for whatever reason.

ANOTHER CHOICE. The Watts® 210 valve, an

alternative to the standard TPR valve, is common in

areas where there is no convenient downslope drain

This modern high-efficiency water heater uses a power

location, needed with TPR valves. The Watts 210 valve

vent to exhaust fumes through the PVC plastic flue pipe.

has a temperature probe at the water heater and a

water discharge at the building exterior, typically

near a hose faucet. Check local codes to be sure Watts

valves are compliant.

DISCHARGE DOWN ! The TPR valve opening

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

and its discharge pipe must slope downward. A valve

■

■

Is the TPR valve’s sensor probe immersed in the

installed pointing up could fill with standing water,

top 6 in. of the tank? If the valve is incorrectly

causing it to malfunction. If the water heater expe-

installed, the water heater is not protected.

rienced excessively high pressure or temperature, it

■

■

Does the TPR valve have discharge piping? Does

could explode.

the discharge valve piping terminate within 6 in.

LEAKY TPR VALVE. Another benefit of having a

of the floor?

■

■

pan or bucket under the discharge valve is observing

Is there a pan or bucket under the discharge

valve so that leaks or discharged water will be

valve leakage. In general, leaking TPR valves may be

visible to the resident?

162 PLUMBING

■■ Does the discharge piping slope downward so

of the flue pipe, the chimney may need a chimney

there can be no standing water in the pipe or

cap (see p. 210) to keep rain from running down the the valve?

inside of the chimney.

■■ Is the TPR valve leaking? (Look for water in the

FLUE PIPING SHOULD SLOPE UPWARD so that

discharge-pipe container or touch a finger to the

bottom of the pipe to see if there’s water.)

heated uncombusted gases can rise naturally and

exit. Piping should be supported every 4 ft. and main-

FLUE PIPES AND VENTING

tain a minimum 1⁄4 in. per 1 ft. upward slope. Because

Oil- and gas-fired water heaters need flue pipes to

combustion gases also contain water vapor, water

vent combustion gases safely out of the house; elec-

could condense and rust out pipe sections that sag or

tric heaters do not need flue pipes. To see if an oil- or don’t slope up. The slope must be continuous, that is.

gas-fired water heater is operating correctly and flue

NOTE : Some newer, high-efficiency water heaters

pipes are venting properly, open a hot-water faucet

use fans to exhaust fumes through PVC plastic flue

and let the water run till the burner ignites. If the

pipe; these powered vent pipes may not need to slope

water heater’s burner does not ignite within 5 minutes

up. Check the manufacturer’s installation specifics.

or 6 minutes, something’s wrong. Shut the faucet and

METAL FLUE PIPE GETS HOT so maintain safe

have a qualified plumber inspect the unit.

distances from combustible materials. If single-wall

FLUE PIPES MUST BE INTACT and single-wall-

metal flue piping is used, there should be a minimum

type pipe connections securely joined with screws.

6 in. between the flue pipe and wood framing. Ide-

Split or separated pipe sections can allow exhaust

ally, the flue should be upgraded to double-wall, Type

gases to escape. Exhaust gases typically contain sev-

B flue piping. Where a metal flue pipe exits an exte-

eral toxic gases including carbon monoxide, which

rior wall, it should do so with a double-wall, insu-

is odorless and extremely poisonous. If a flue pipe

lated wall-adaptor (aka thimble). On your inspection

terminates in a masonry chimney, there should be no

report, note any scorched wood near any flue pipe(s).

gaps where exhaust gases could leak. If you see dark

water stains or creosote-like stains on the outside

IS THE CHIMNEY CLEAR?

Though it’s not a routine inspection

task, an inspector may want to remove the vent

thimble, where the vent pipe inserts into a masonry

chimney. (Turn the water heater off first.) Use a

flashlight and mirror to check the chimney interior.

All manner of debris can accumulate in the bottom of

a chimney—from soot to nests—and that debris can

block a chimney, hamper draft, and possibly force

carbon monoxide into living areas. The National Fire

Protection Association suggests annual chimney and

flue inspections—or whenever a fuel-burning appli-

ance is vented into a chimney. The Chimney Safety

Small-diameter aluminum tubing is not suitable for

Institute of America (www.csia.org) offers a state-by-water heater gas supplies; it should be replaced with

state listing of chimney services with certified staff.

3⁄4-in. flexible gas connector. For more information

about gas piping, see Chapter 8.

P L U M B I N G 163

When a new water heater is installed the old flue draft

Rusting at the base of this water heater indicates poor

diverter should be removed. Here a double diverter

venting of flue gases. This water heater is near the end

has caused the spillage of superheated flue gases.

of its useful life and should be replaced.

The (melted) black foam insulation on the cold water

heater supply is not necessary and should be removed.

CHECK THE DRAFT. After the burner fires for a

SCORCH MARKS on the bottom of a gas-fired

few minutes, hold your hand 4 in. to 6 in. away from

water heater are an example of flame rollout, in

the draft diverter. If there is a decent draft, you won’t which flames flare outside the burner area. The most

feel much: perhaps a flow of air toward the diverter,

common cause of rollout is a missing access cover, al-

but not hot air. If, however, you feel hot exhaust on

though a specialist should check the adjustment of the

your hand, the flue may be blocked or there may be

pilot light and check to be sure the unit has adequate

negative pressure in the house, also known as back-

fresh air for robust combustion. Note any combusti-

drafting, in which exhaust gases are pulled back into

bles stored near an oil- or gas-fired water heater; they

living spaces.

should be moved well away from the area.

In older houses, the most common cause of back-

drafting is a water heater that is housed in a laundry

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

room with an exhaust fan and/or a clothes dryer. The

■

■

Run hot water till the water heater burner

draft of the fans creates a negative pressure (a partial

kicks in. If it doesn’t ignite within 5 minutes or

vacuum) in the room, which sucks exhaust air back

6 minutes, shut off the unit and have a plumber

down the flue. If this condition has existed for a

check it.

■

■

while, you may see rust stains on water heater pipes

Is the water heater flue pipe intact along its

length? Is it free from rust, splits, and separa-

near the diverter. One possible fix is moving the

tions? Are sections screwed together?

water heater to a separate room.

■

■

If the flue pipe terminates in a masonry chimney,

Backdrafting may also be a cause of a water

does the pipe fit tightly to the chimney thimble

heater’s rusted-out bottom, as shown in the right

or are there gaps? Are there dark water stains,

photo above. Water vapor not being vented is collect-

rust, or creosote leakage on the flue pipe? Gently

ing near the water heater and being drawn into the

pull the pipe from the chimney thimble and ex-

amine the chimney for signs of blockage.

burner area.

164 PLUMBING

■■ Does the flue pipe slope upward? Is it supported

at least every 4 ft.?

■■ Is the metal flue pipe single wall or, preferably,

REMOVE INSULATING BLANKETS

Type B double wall? Is there at least 6 in. be-

tween single-walled metal flue pipe and com-

bustible surfaces such as wall or floor framing?

Insulating blankets, very popular

If double-wall flue pipe, is there at least 1-in.

during periodic energy crises, are now prohibited by

clearance?

many water heater manufacturers because they can

■■ If the flue pipe vents directly through an exterior

retain moisture and cause rust. Covering the top of a

wall, does it do so through a proper wall adap-

water heater was never a wise idea because it obstructs

tor? Is any of the framing near the flue pipe or

the flow of air into the draft diverter and blocks proper wall adaptor scorched?

venting of flue gases. All such blankets should be

■■ Is there a draft diverter atop an oil- or gas-fired

removed and the water heater checked for excessive

water heater?

rust and proper venting.

■■ After running the unit’s burner for a few minutes,

do exhaust gases vent properly? Or are there fuel

fumes, a weak draft, or other signs of possible

backdrafting?

■■ Does the water heater share a room with a

clothes dryer or other vented appliances?

■■ Are there rust marks or scorch marks near the

bottom of the water heater?

■■ Are combustibles stored near an oil- or gas-fired

water heater? They should be moved.

■■ Insulating blankets should be removed from

water heaters. They trap moisture and may

interfere with flue drafting.

■■ If the water heater is in a seismic region, is it

strapped to framing?

WATER HEATER SUPPLY PIPE ISSUES

Here are a few supply pipe–related issues you may

Insulating blankets should be removed and the unit

checked for rust.

encounter when inspecting a water heater.

REVERSED WATER LINES. Openings in the top

of most water heaters have cold or hot stamped next

to respective openings for cold water inlet pipes and

hot water outlet pipes. It’s all pretty straightforward,

but inattentive plumbers frequently reverse the lines.

and exit (incorrectly) through a dip tube at the bot-

Attaching supply pipes correctly matters because

tom of the tank. So when a resident opens a hot water

inside the water heater are dip tubes of different

faucet, the water that flows out isn’t very hot. In re-

lengths. The cold water dip tube empties near the

sponse, the resident increases the heater thermostat

bottom of the tank, so that as the water is heated it

setting, which wastes yet more fuel and shortens the

rises in the tank, to exit through a shorter dip tube

life of the water heater.

near the top of the tank.

It’s pretty easy to detect reversed water pipes at the

Reverse the supply pipes and cold water will enter

water heater by touching the hot water supply pipe. It

the top of the tank, mix with somewhat heated water,

won’t be very hot. (Touch both outlet and inlet pipe

P L U M B I N G 165

PIPE INSULATION on hot water pipes will keep

heat from dissipating, especially if they pass through

unheated areas or feed distant fixtures. Thus hot

SEISMIC STRAPPING

water will get there quicker. Pipe insulation will melt

if too close to flue pipes or the diverter, so install pipe During an earthquake, an unsecured

insulation a safe distance above, and away from, such

water heater could fall, breaking gas and water lines.

hot venting elements.

To prevent such damage, building codes in California

and other seismically active regions require that

water heaters be secured by two metal straps (seis-

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

mic braces) bolted to nearby studs. Straps should be

■

■

placed roughly one-third from the top of the heater

Are faucet water temperatures considerably

and one-third from the bottom, with the bottom strap

lower than the thermostat setting on the water

at least 4 in. above thermostat and fuel controls.

heater? Check the hot and cold openings atop

the unit: Perhaps inlet and outlet pipes have been

reversed.

■

■

Inlet and outlet pipes that attach to the water

heater should be flexible piping, not rigid.

■

■

If water from an electric heater isn’t very hot,

check the breaker that controls the unit first,

fittings for comparison.) To be more exacting, com-

then the high-limit switch near the water heater.

pare the thermostat setting to the temperature of hot

Then suspect a failed heating element or a tem-

water coming from a nearby faucet. Especially if the

perature sensor.

water heater is new, you’ve discovered the problem.

■

■

If hot water smells like rotten eggs, bacteria

RIGID INLET AND OUTLET PIPES are a code vi-

have reacted with the anode rod. The rod should

olation in some regions. Flex water piping will resist

be replaced and the water heater flushed with

bactericide.

breaking in the event of an earthquake. By the way,

■

■

Are hot water pipes insulated? Is any of the foam

leaky fittings atop a water heater are not unusual and

insulation above the water heater melted?

can be a serious problem. A plumber should tighten

or replace the fittings, and the resident should moni-

TANKLESS WATER HEATERS

tor the fittings periodically

Tankless water heaters, also known as on-demand,

WATER NOT HOT: ELECTRIC UNIT. First make

instant, or flash water heaters, don’t have storage

sure the water heater breaker has not tripped, check

tanks for heated water. When someone opens a hot-

for reversed supply lines, then have a plumber assess

water faucet and water begins to flow through a tank-

the heating elements and temperature sensor to see

less heater, a flow sensor ignites the unit’s burner

if either has failed. Frequently the cause is a power

and a heat exchanger honeycombed with coiled water

failure or a high-limit switch near the water heater

pipes heats up almost instantaneously. When the

that has tripped.

faucet or shower valve shuts off and the water stops

HOT WATER THAT SMELLS LIKE ROTTEN

flowing, the sensor shuts off the burner.

EGGS is usually caused by bacteria in the water react-Tankless water heaters are generally more compli-

ing with an anode rod in the water heater. This condi-

cated and more expensive to install than a traditional

tion is more likely to happen in a home with a private

tank heater but, on the whole, less expensive to

well, but it has become less common. The tank

operate because there’s no energy wasted keeping a

should be flushed with a bactericide such as bleach,

tankful of water hot round the clock. In other words,

drained thoroughly, refilled, and retested. The anode

tankless water heaters consume energy only when

rod should be replaced.

166 PLUMBING

manufacturer will specify. If hard-water conditions

exist, the unit should be flushed regularly to prevent

mineral buildup on the heat exchanger.

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

■

■

What’s the Btu rating of the tankless water

heater?

■

■

If the unit is gas fired, is it located so it can vent

easily to the outside?

■

■

Does the tankless water heater have separate

intake and outtake pipes or a single concentric

direct-vent pipe? If the latter, does the pipe slope

meet manufacturer recommendations?

■

■

If the house has hard water, is the unit regularly

flushed to prevent mineral buildup?

DWV pipes

The DWV system carries wastes and sewage gases

Tankless water heaters consume energy only when

away from the house. Every fixture has a drain trap

hot water is needed—that is, when a hot-water faucet

or shower valve is opened. Gas-fired units must be

designed to remain filled with water after the fixture

located where a vent can be run to the outside.

empties. This residual water keeps sewage gases

from rising into living spaces. (Toilets have integral

traps.) As trap arms leave individual fixtures, they

hot water is needed. About the size of a suitcase,

empty into branch drains or directly into a soil stack,

tankless units are a great favorite when space is tight,

which, at its base, turns and becomes the main drain.

too. They are typically wall mounted.

The main drain then discharges into a city sewer

Their other great draw is that properly sized tank-

main or a septic tank.

less units never run out of hot water. (Endless hot

Drainpipes also may be differentiated according

water is not free, of course.) As a rule of thumb, a tank-to the wastes they carry: soil pipes and soil stacks

less unit with 140,000-Btu input will suffice for a one-

carry fecal matter and urine, whereas waste pipes

bath home with one or two users; a 190,000-Btu input

carry waste water but not soil. Stacks are generally

should do for a two-bath home with two to four people.

vertical pipes, although they may jog slightly to avoid

Because tankless heaters are technologically com-

obstacles.

plicated yet compact, there’s not a lot to inspect. In

fact, a plumber trained in tankless technology should

VENTING SPECIFICS

inspect the unit periodically. If the unit is gas fired,

Venting is the V in DWV. Without venting, wastes

it must be located where a vent can be run to the out-

would either not fall at all or, in falling, would suck

side. Depending on the type, tankless water heaters

the water out of fixture traps, allowing sewage gases

may have separate intake and exhaust pipes, whereas

to enter living spaces. Vents admit an amount of air

others will have a single concentric direct-vent pipe—

equal to that displaced by the falling water. Thus

a pipe within a pipe—to supply fresh air and exhaust

every fixture must be vented. In most cases, the trap

combustion gas. The pipe will have an optimal pitch

arm exits into a tee fitting whose bottom leg is a

to carry off combustion condensation, which the

branch drain and whose upper leg is a branch vent.

P L U M B I N G 167

THE DRAIN, WASTE,

A DRAIN TRAP

AND VENT SYSTEM

Vent

Stack vent

Branch

2 in.

vent

Vent stack

1

1 /

1

1 /2 in.

2 in.

2 in.

2 in.

Sanitary

tee

Drain-trap

Branch

2 in.

water seal

Drain

drain

2 in.

Soil stack

Water traps prevent sewage gases from

1 /

1 2 in.

e Water traps seal sewage gases from

ntering living spaces, but they need vents

to operate properly. Without incoming air

3 in. minimum

living spaces, but they need vents to

from the vent, falling wastes could suck the

operate properly. Without incoming air

water out of traps.

from the vent, falling wastes could suck

the water out of traps.

Main drain

To sewer or

(building drain)

septic tank

from entering the house, vents must terminate at least

3 ft. above an operable window or a minimum of

10 ft. horizontal distance from an operable window at

Drainpipes must slope downward at least

the same level.

Dra /4 in. per ft. so wastes can fall freely.

1inpipes must slope downward at least 1⁄4 in.

per foot so wastes can fall freely. Vent pipes must

As you inspect the exterior of a house, scan the roof

Vent pipes must slope upward at least

slope upward at least 1⁄8 per foot so sewage gases

for plumbing vent stacks. If you don’t see at least one,

1

ca /

n r8

i in. per ft. so sewage gases can ris

se and exit the building.

e

and exit the building.

either the stack(s) terminates in the attic—a code

violation—or the DWV system is not properly vented.

DRAINPIPES

Branch vents continue upward, often joining other

DWV pipes may be of any number of materials. An

fixture vents, until they join a vent stack, which exits

older house may have drain and vent pipes with sec-

through the roof.

tions of cast iron, galvanized steel, copper, or plastic.

Because vents must admit enough air to offset that

DWV pipes installed these days are mostly plastic:

displaced by falling water, vents are approximately the

white PVC or black acrylonitrile butadiene styrene

same size as their companion drains. Branch vents

(ABS). No-hub couplings (also known as hubless

and drains are usually 11⁄2-in. or 2-in. pipes, and main

connectors) are the fitting most often used to join

stacks and drains are 3-in. pipes. To keep septic gases

different DWV pipes; their inner neoprene sleeves

168 PLUMBING

VENT TERMINATION

12 in. minimum

10 ft. minimum

6 in. minimum

3 ft. minimum

Roof flashing

Operable

window

So ve So vent gases won’t enter the home,

nt gases won’t enter the home,

plum plumbing vents must terminate at

bing vents must terminate at least 3 ft.

abov least 3 ft. above an operable window,

e an operable window or a minimum of

10 ft. or a minimum of 10 ft. horizontal

horizontal distance from an operable

distance from an operable window

window at the same level.

at the same level.

seal junctions tightly when their outer band clamps

intervals. Note any missing or broken pipe supports in

are snugged down.

your inspection report as well as pipe sections that

Drainpipes must slope downward (fall) at least 1⁄4 in.

lack adequate downward slope. When metal strapping

per foot so that waste will be carried out; whereas vent

is used to support plastic piping, the piping should be

pipes typically slope upward a minimum of 1⁄8 in. per

insulated from the strapping to protect it from

foot. All pipes need to be properly supported. The

abrasion and damage.

general rule is that plastic DWV pipe must be sup-

If at any point you see larger-diameter drainpipes

ported every 4 ft., cast iron every 5 ft. and at least

emptying into smaller ones, write it up. The smaller

within 18 in. of each hub, threaded steel-cast iron

pipe sections need to be replaced to avoid blockage in

every 12 ft., and copper piping 11⁄2 in. or larger at 10-ft.

the lines.

P L U M B I N G 169

Small pinhole leaks are common in older cast-iron

All piping needs to be properly supported. ABS plastic

waste piping. Piping such as this should be checked

needs support every 4 ft., cast iron every 5 ft. and at

periodically and replaced if leaks are found.

least within 18 in. of each hub, threaded steel-cast

piping systems every 12 ft., and copper piping 11⁄2 in.

or larger in diameter should be supported at 10-ft. in-

tervals. This pipe is sagging because it is inadequately

supported.

OLD SEWER PIPING

sink, lavatory, or tub and see if it drains quickly and

completely. For sinks and lavatories, look at traps

Clay tile piping was used in many older

and drainpipes in the cabinet underneath for wetness

waste systems between the building and main sewer.

or leaking. In addition to looking, listen, and smell.

These pipes, called sewer laterals, are buried in the

ground and not accessible to inspection. Clay pipes

A draining fixture should not cause gurgling in an

are easily damaged and can be blocked by tree roots,

adjacent fixture, nor should flushing or draining one

or may crack from soil movement, causing sewage to

fixture suck the water out of another fixture’s trap.

back up into house fixtures. Older cast-iron or steel

Both symptoms are signs of clogged, undersize, or

waste piping is susceptible to rusting and may also

need replacement. If possible, determine if there is

missing vents. Waste and drainage systems should

any history of clogged drains or waste system repairs.

be airtight, so have a plumber investigate persistent

Older sewer laterals should eventually be replaced.

sewage smells.

Prospective home buyers should have sewer laterals

DWV PIPE CONDITION. DWV pipes should be

examined for defects by a qualified plumber using

airtight and free of gaps, cracks, and leaks. Fittings

special video equipment designed for this purpose.

tend to be the most vulnerable points along any

system, so inspect them carefully for cracks, leaks, or

smells. Surface rust is acceptable on cast-iron pipe,

but pinholes and leaking or corroded fixtures are not;

INSPECTING DWV PIPES

they should be replaced.

Large drains can usually be inspected in crawl spaces

Rigid plastic DWV pipe is durable if it is correctly

or unfinished basements. Obviously, in houses with

installed and supported. The most common causes

finished basements or houses built on slabs there

of plastic pipe leaks are insufficiently cemented fit-

won’t be much to see; so your DWV inspection will be

tings, followed by cracks due to inadequate supports.

confined to attics (if any) and cabinets under sinks

However, defective ABS rigid plastic pipe installed

and lavatories.

as DWV lines from 1984 to 1990 resulted in a major

FILL, FLUSH, DRAIN, REPEAT. Inspecting DWV

class-action settlement. Defective ABS pipe tended

pipes is pretty straightforward. Run the water in a

to crack around its circumference, especially near

170 PLUMBING

SEWAGE EJECTION

SYSTEMS

When a house is downhill from a

municipal sewer main, or a basement toilet is below

the main house drain, it’s sometimes necessary to

pump wastes up to the main sewer drain. Pumping

wastes uphill requires a sewage ejection system with

a tank, pump, air vent, and various controls or valves.

Because the tank is typically installed below the

basement floor, all an inspector can see is a gasketed

Defective ABS rigid plastic pipe used for DWV lines

tank cover with discharge and vent pipes rising out of

was subject to a major class action settlement in the

it. There should be no leaks or smell around the unit.

1980s. As is shown here, ABS pipes were breaking near

The sewage ejector discharge piping that runs

the joints, causing leaks and damage. The cause was

uphill should not connect to upper-level waste pip-

identified as a production issue; settlement money for

ing horizontally but should be located above it, so

these defects is no longer available.

the waste water flows down into the piping system

by gravity in order to prevent any pressurization of

the waste piping by the ejector pump. Ejector pump

joints. The cause of the failure was a production issue

systems are reliable, so an inspector is usually most

(poor quality); settlement money for damages is no

concerned with how noisy the system is because that

may be a big concern to a house buyer. So flush a

longer available.

toilet or two till the sewage ejector pump starts.

NOTE : PVC and ABS piping must be cemented with

the adhesive specified for each pipe type. In other

words, one may not use PVC cement to join ABS

pipes. If you see black ABS fittings slathered with

whitish PVC cement, scrutinize it for leaks and

write it up.

DWV PIPE REPAIRS. To ensure that DWV

systems are airtight, damaged pipes cannot be

repaired, only replaced. If you see repair materials

clamped, glued, or puttied into fittings or along pipe

lengths, they should be replaced as soon as possible

to avoid leaks.

WATER STAINS, WETNESS, OR ROT BELOW.

When the main sewer piping system runs above a

Water-stained or wet subflooring and framing below

house, it’s sometimes necessary to use a sewage ejec-

fixtures should be inspected to see if there is active

tor with a tank, pump, and air vent to properly drain

lower level bathroom fixtures. The discharge piping

leaking or sewage odors. Damaged materials should

should terminate above the main waste piping and

be replaced, especially below tubs or toilets, so that

then flow downward to prevent any pressurization of

these weighty fixtures are adequately supported.

the waste piping system. When buying or inspecting a

home, always run enough water into the tank to cause

When inspecting toilets, try to gently rock the toilet

the pump to operate.

base to see if it is well supported; there should be no

movement.

P L U M B I N G 171

Flex waste lines are available at many hardware stores

Repairs such as these are only temporary; defective

but do not comply with most modern plumbing codes,

sections and fittings need to be replaced.

which specify that only smooth wall piping is suitable

in a drain line.

INSPECTING FIXTURE TRAPS

codes, which specify that only smooth piping is suit-

A trap is a U-shaped drain section required on all

able in a drain line. While technically incorrect, they

plumbing fixtures except toilets. The trap holds

are cheaper and easier to install and usual function

water to block sewer gas, which otherwise could flow

well, till they clog.

up from the main sewer piping into the building.

HIGH WASTE-OUTFLOW PIPE. Waste-outflow

Sewer gas (methane) may have an odor or it may be

pipes must be lower than the flood level of the at-

odorless; it can be explosive. If a trap is not properly

tached trap. The outflow shown in the top left photo

installed, the water can be siphoned out and sewer

on the facing page is problematic because it is higher

gas may enter living spaces. The horizontal pipe or

than the garbage disposal trap. This configuration

arm should flow downward at a gentle slope (1⁄4 in.

would cause waste water to stand inside the disposer

per foot) to the vertical drain–vent connection.

and perhaps spray upward into the kitchen sink.

Look for the following fixture trap and drain con-

Adding a disposer to an older kitchen sink with a

ditions during your inspection.

high waste outflow often causes this problem. The

A BUCKET UNDER A SINK TRAP. A leak that

only sure fix is opening the wall and installing a new,

no one bothered to fix. Most likely, trap fittings need

lower sanitary tee or removing the disposer entirely.

to be tightened or washers replaced. Check the sink

SEWER ODOR AT CLOTHES WASHER DRAIN

drain stems, too. If you see wrench marks on fittings,

OVERFLOW. The plumber may have forgotten to

this is a long-term problem.

install a trap. Clothes washer drains (stand pipes)

TWO SINKS, TWO TRAPS. Two adjacent sinks

should be located so the trap is between 6 in. and

should empty into only one trap. This is a common

18 in. above the floor, and the vertical pipe 18 in. to

problem beneath kitchen sinks with two basins; hav-

42 in. above the trap. The piping itself should be

ing two traps means that both will function poorly

larger in diameter than the washer drain; newer

when they drain. Only a single U-shaped trap is

clothes washers need a 2-in. drain. If an older clothes

permitted below bath and kitchen sinks.

washer drain overflows, the drain is probably under-

FLEX WASTE LINES are available in many

size or clogged.

hardware stores but they do not meet most plumbing

172 PLUMBING

The upper right (horizontal) drainpipe needs to be

This modern air-admittance valve acts as a vent, al-

lower than the flood level in the attached trap. This

lowing air to flow into the waste piping system. Such

configuration will allow waste water to stand inside

valves are useful in attics, in subfloor areas, and below the disposer and perhaps cause drain water to spray

island-cabinet sinks.

upward into the kitchen sink.

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

■

■

When inspecting the house exterior, scan the

roof for vent stacks. Do they terminate at least

3 ft. above operable windows?

■

■

What are drainpipes made of? What is their

general condition? Look for pinholes, cracks, and

leaks, especially where pipes join fittings.

■

■

Does every fixture (except toilets) have a

drain trap?

■

■

Run water in fixtures and note any whose traps or

drains leak. Does it look like the leak has existed

This is a classic S-trap, which has no vent to prevent

for a while? Look for water stains or damage in

siphoning waste water out of the trap. Thus sewage

cabinets under sinks and lavatories.

gases could rise into living spaces.

■

■

Do all drainpipes slope downward at least 1⁄4 in.

per foot? Are pipes adequately supported or do

PUTTIED TRAP OR DRAIN JOINTS. Using

some sections sag?

putty to repair leaks is not approved and will leak

■

■

Note wherever you see larger-diameter drain-

soon. It's better to remove all pipe sections and in-

pipes emptying into smaller ones.

stall proper washers and fittings or even new piping.

■

■

Note pipe repairs; faulty fittings or pipe sections

must be replaced.

AIR-ADMITTANCE VALVES ARE OK. Modern

■

■

Note flexible waste lines used instead of traps;

air-admittance valves are a mechanical way to vent

they should be replaced.

inaccessible drains, which most codes now allow.

■

■

Is there a sewage smell where a clothes-washer

Air-admittance valves are particularly useful in

drain feeds into a laundry standpipe?

subfloor areas, below island-cabinet sinks, and in

attics where vent piping does not need to penetrate

the roofing system.

P L U M B I N G 173

Private Wells and Septic Systems

Private (on-site) wells and septic systems need a bit

of land, so they are usually located in rural or sub-

urban areas.

PRIVATE WELLS

Private wells (also called freshwater or groundwater

wells) serve different needs. In rural areas they

primarily provide drinking water and/or irrigation

for crops. In suburban locales private wells typically

supply water for lawns and gardens, as a backup dur-

ing droughts. The first, best advice to give anyone in-

terested in buying a property with a private well is to

This well appears relatively new. It is fairly common

get the water tested. Water quality matters even when

to have the starter and motor completely exposed, at

wells are used to water lawns; for example, children

least in areas where snow isn’t going to interfere. As

often play or drink from lawn sprinklers. Wells that

long as the motor and other enclosures are NEMA 3

and the wiring is suitable for wet locations, it isn’t

provide drinking water or other critical uses should

a problem.

also be checked to see how deep they are and what

the flow rate is in dry weather.

Both shallow wells (less than 25 ft. below the sur-

face) and deep wells (more than 25 ft.) can become

then rotted leaves and, say, drowned earthworms can

contaminated and either will be expensive to replace

lend a distinctive tang to potable water. Shallow-well

because that means drilling a new well. Moreover,

conditions may clear up on their own or may need

if the contaminants are chemical pollutants in the

inexpensive intervention such as flushing the cistern,

aquifer (subterranean rock layers where groundwater

but in any event, the homeowner should have the

collects), there’s not a lot that can be done short term.

water tested.

Public-health and water-quality authorities in the

Three basic pump types service private wells: jet,

area should have reports of regional water pollution,

piston, and submersible. Any of these can be used

including maps of affected areas. A Google™ search

in shallow or deep wells. In practice, jet or piston

of Internet articles may yield more recent information

pumps are usually situated atop shallow wells, and

on the problem though, of course, the science behind

submersibles immersed in deep wells.

that plethora of materials will vary considerably.

JET PUMPS are centrifugal pumps that feature

“Consider the source,” as the saying goes.

an impeller wheel that increases the pressure and

A home inspector should ask homeowners for

velocity of water being drawn from the well. As the

water-testing reports. Beyond that, you can’t tell a lot

pump motor turns the impeller, it sucks up water

from a glass of tap water. It may taste OK, be clear

from the well and creates pressure in the water supply

and odorless, and still be polluted. (Many pollutants

pipes. A shallow-well jet pump typically has only one

are odorless and colorless, especially when diluted in

pipe running into the well. (Deep-well jet pumps

a vast aquifer.) On the other hand, if the water stinks,

have two pipes.) Jet pumps atop a shallow-well plat-

is turbid (cloudy), or tastes bad, note that in your

form need to be encased in an insulated housing to

inspection report. Shallow wells are more prone to

protect them from freezing in the Frost Belt. Other-

show such conditions, especially in wet months when

wise, water will freeze inside the pump and split it,

the ground around a shallow well becomes sodden;

requiring replacement.

174 PLUMBING

PISTON PUMPS are no longer installed and are

checked periodically by a pump service company to

increasingly difficult to get parts for. That said, they

be sure they’re working.

are pretty reliable. Piston pumps have been likened

Because a submersible pump is located deep in a

to motorized hand pumps because both feature a

well, an inspector can’t hear the pump running. So

two-stroke piston that sucks up water on one stroke

as a resident or a helper opens several faucets, the

and discharges it on the next. If the pump casing

inspector should stand by the pressure tank noting

leaks or its pulley systems are rickety, the pump may

the pressure gauge to make sure that it starts when

need to be replaced before too long. Piston pumps

the gauge needle drops to the lower pressure limit

should also be protected by an insulated housing in

and stops when the needle reaches the upper limit. At

cold regions.

the same time, the inspector will be able to hear the

SUBMERSIBLE PUMPS are designed to be im-

pressure switch clicking on and off. There’s typically

mersed, so both their electric motor and centrifugal

a 20-psi difference between upper and lower limits—

pump operate under water. A single pipe runs from

that is, the start and stop readings.

the pump to an above-ground storage tank, typically

If the pressure switch clicks on and off too often,

placed in an insulated well house or in the base-

the tank air bladder may be waterlogged. In other

ment of a house. Submersible pumps are powerful,

words, the tank is full of water, so that even small

efficient, reliable, and because they operate in a

water withdrawals at a faucet will start the pump. The

well, quiet. Their downside is that if the pump or its

bladder should be replaced, which is not an expen-

motor fail, the whole apparatus—wire, water piping,

sive repair. If the pump switch does not start at the

and pump unit—must be pulled out of the well and

lower limit or stop at the upper limit, the gauge may

brought up to the surface. Lightning strikes can

be malfunctioning and should be replaced. And, of

knock out submersible pump motors, so an electri-

course, if the gauge indicates excess pressure in the

cian should install a lightning arrestor to protect the

tank (anything above 60 psi), a pump service com-

power feed to the motor.

pany should assess the system.

PRESSURE TANKS are storage tanks located in a

Note pressure tanks that are rusting or leaking;

well house or a basement that act as reservoirs so that

leaking tanks may need to be replaced if they cannot

pumps don’t have to cycle (start and stop) so often.

hold requisite pressures. Last, if the pressure tank is

(Short-cycling shortens the life of pumps.) Because

in an outside well house, it should be insulated and

water can’t be compressed, pressure tanks contain air

heated as necessary to prevent damage to the tank in

bladders, typically a rubberized or plastic lining, that

regions with freezing temperatures.

can expand and contract as water pressure varies.

It works like this: when someone opens a tap and

SEPTIC SYSTEMS

water is withdrawn from the tank, the bladder ex-

Septic systems typically consist of a watertight septic

pands till, at some point, the pressure inside the tank

tank (holding tank) that house sewage empties into

decreases sufficiently to start the pump again. Water

and an array of perforated piping called a leaching

enters the tank, the bladder constricts, and the pump

field that disperses effluents (waste liquids) into the

stops running when a preset pressure is reached.

ground. Septic tanks are often cast concrete but may

The pressure tank has a pressure gauge, a pressure

be fiberglass or steel. Wastes from the house main

switch, and an automatic pressure relief valve to pre-

drain flow along downward-sloping pipes to the inlet

vent excessive pressure buildup in the tank. As noted,

pipe of the septic tank; there, bacteria break down

the pressure varies as water is withdrawn or pumped

wastes so that sludge settles to the bottom and ef-

into the tank: 30 psi to 50 psi is a normal pressure

fluents rise to the top and exit through an outlet pipe

range. The pressure tank and its devices should be

connected to the leaching field.

P L U M B I N G 175

bottom of the septic tank. The results range from a

patch of exceptionally lush grass over the leaching

field to stinky, boggy ground under foot. If you en-

THE CURSE OF SANITARY WIPES

counter such conditions during your inspection, ask

the homeowner where the septic tank and leaching

Sanitary wipes, small polyester pads

field are located.

infused with an antibacterial agent such as propylene

On average, a septic tank should be inspected every

glycol, have become very popular of late. Used once

then flushed, they have the potential to kill all bacte-

3 years to 5 years and pumped out periodically to

rial activity in a septic system and they take forever to remove sludge buildup. If the tank isn’t pumped out

degrade—if they degrade at all. The result is a dead

and the sludge level gets too high, there will be no

septic system in which wastes don’t break down,

room for additional sewage to separate. In effect, raw

and, in short order, the tank needs to be pumped. To

reintroduce helpful bacteria into the tank, a probiotic

sewage will flow across the top of the septic tank and

agent may need to be added. Bottom line: Don’t flush into the leaching field, where waste solids may even-sanitary wipes!

tually fill the gravel beds and the perforated pipes.

That’s a big problem, requiring a new leaching field,

which could have easily been avoided.

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

Leaching fields are complex and may need to be

■

■

Does the homeowner have records of annual

engineered. Leaching field design must consider the

water-quality tests? When was the last time well

size of the household, the volume of wastes, the size

water was tested for contamination?

of the septic tank, the size and slope of the site, soil

■

■

Is water from the tap clear or cloudy? Does

composition, groundwater levels, and more. A soils

it smell?

■

■

engineer does a series of perc tests to determine the

If there is an above-ground pump, is it leaking?

If the region gets freezing temperatures, is the

site’s percolation rate: the rate at which effluents are

pump located in a basement or in an insulated

absorbed by the soil. Because groundwater levels vary

outbuilding?

from year to year, sizing a leaching field is a some-

■

■

Does the well water pressure tank have a pres-

what inexact, if essential, science.

sure relief valve? Is the tank leaking?

With good design and a modest amount of main-

■

■

Run the water and watch the pressure tank

tenance, septic systems should be trouble free for

gauge. Do readings stay within a 30-psi to 50-psi

years. When systems do fail, it’s usually because too

range? Does the pressure switch operate normally

much water has been flushed through the tank or an

or does it click on and off too often?

■

■

exceptional amount of groundwater has saturated the

When was the septic tank last emptied?

■

■

soil. (Rain runoff from roof, gutters, and down-

Ask the homeowner where the septic tank and

leaching field are located.

spouts should not be discharged into a septic system

■

■

Do you observe especially lush vegetation,

but rather through a separate storm drain system.)

boggy ground, or sewage smells around the

When a septic system is flooded, waste solids flow

septic tank or leaching field?

out into the leaching field, rather than settling to the

176 PLUMBING

CHAPTER 8

HEATING and

COOLING SYSTEMS

TO VETERAN HOME INSPECTORS, today’s high-efficiency heating and cooling systems must look like a whole

new world. Where once an inspector could remove a few

sheet-metal screws to look inside a furnace, today the

health of a heating system is more likely to be revealed

by a set of digital readouts. Increasingly, a general home inspection will be followed by a heating, ventilation,

and air-conditioning (HVAC) inspection performed by a

specialist.

WHEN TO CALL IN AN

HVAC SPECIALIST

Given the complexity of modern heating

and cooling systems and the high cost of replacing

them, there are times when a home inspector should

call in an HVAC specialist to service and/or repair a

system or to provide a more detailed assessment of its

condition.

The key triggers for calling an HVAC specialist are

visual clues that the system has not been serviced

recently, such as dirty filters or blower compartments,

signs of flue-gas leakage at the inducer motor, flue-

vent leakage or spillage, and water or condensate

Inspecting modern furnaces has become a complex

leakage inside or near a high-efficiency condensing

business. After carefully removing the furnace cover,

furnace. These symptoms can appear in a unit of any

look for rust or corrosion, flue spillage, and signs of

age: Homeowners with newer systems often do not

maintenance or neglect. Photograph the unit so you

can scrutinize it further when writing your report.

have them serviced adequately.

A good heating contractor will put a tag on the

furnace that includes the most recent service date.

No service tag is an immediate tip-off. Most contrac-

Overview:

tors recommend annual servicing, but once every two

Central Heating Systems

years is adequate if owners change filters as needed.

Home heating can be divided into two broad categories:

Furnaces with air-conditioning systems in hot summer

room heaters and central heating systems. Fireplaces,

areas may need annual servicing. A number of poten-

woodstoves, portable space heaters, floor heaters, and

tial defects can be discovered only during a detailed

servicing, such as a cracked heat exchanger or a badly

wall furnaces are examples of room heaters because

balanced distribution of heat or cooling throughout

they provide direct heat only to the rooms in which

the house.

they are installed. In a central heating system, on the

other hand, hot water, steam, or warm air are gener-

ated in one location and then distributed throughout

the house. Though we will look at room heaters later

on, most of this chapter is about central heating,

especially forced-air systems.

FIVE COMMON COMPONENTS

Most central heating systems have these five compo-

nents: (1) thermostats and other controls; (2) burners that get heat from natural or liquefied petroleum (LP)

gas, fuel oil, or electricity; and (3) heat exchangers that transfer heat from the firebox to circulating air

or water. If the heat exchanger transfers heat to water,

it’s a boiler; if it transfers heat to air, it’s a furnace.

This cleanable fabric air filter hasn’t been cleaned in

If a blower fan moves the heated air, it’s a forced-

a long time, which is no small matter. Clogged filters

waste energy and can shorten furnace life. Units that

air heating system; if there is no fan, it’s a gravity

haven’t been maintained or serviced in a long time

system. The same is true of boilers, which produce

should be inspected by an HVAC contractor.

178 HEATING AND COOLING SYSTEMS

MOUNTING AND ENCLOSING EQUIPMENT

Heating and cooling appliances should be securely

mounted and able to sustain both vertical and

horizontal loads. Furnaces or furnace housing that

shakes or rattles when the burner fires up or the

blower fan starts may not be adequately fastened.

Exposed fly wheels, fans, pulleys, belts, and mov-

ing machinery should have a proper metal enclosure

to protect people or pets from being injured.

The furnace housing should be intact. Examine it

for damage or rust if the furnace is sitting on a base-

ment floor or located in a damp subfloor area with

Furnace and boiler nameplates contain a wealth of

earlier signs of standing water.

information, including model numbers, fuel type, input

and output Btu/hour, pressure limits, electrical specs,

Gas-fired appliances (that are not direct vent

clearance requirements, and relief-valve capacity.

design) must not be installed in bedrooms, bath-

With this information, you can probably find an opera-

tion manual online.

rooms, or storage closets. Adequate fresh air intake

is necessary for optimal combustion.

hot water or steam. Gravity hot water systems rely

GARAGE FURNACE REQUIREMENTS

on convection to move the water, forced–hot water

Furnaces may be safely located in a garage if they are

(hydronic) systems use circulating pumps, and steam

protected from damage and isolated from combus-

moves under its own pressure. The other two compo-

tibles such as fuel fumes or stored chemicals.

nents are (4) pipes or ducts to distribute the heated Appliances in garages that house vehicles must be

water, steam, or air to rooms throughout the house

protected from impact or elevated above the normal

and (5) outlets in the form of either radiators or regis-path of vehicles.

ters to deliver the heated water or air to a room; they

Heating equipment that generates a spark, flame,

can be adjusted to some degree.

or glow must have its ignition source at least 18 in.

above the floor level of a garage. (Fuel fumes and

FURNACE ACCESS AND CLEARANCES

other combustibles, being heavier than air, tend to

If a furnace (or boiler) is enclosed in a compartment,

collect near the floor.)

the door to that compartment must be large enough

If a heating appliance is enclosed in a separate

to remove the appliance without having to remove

sealed compartment within a garage, the appliance

any other permanent construction. (A door 2 ft. wide

may be installed at floor level if the compartment has

is typical.) There must be a working space at least 30

exterior access and combustion air is drawn from

in. deep across the service end of the furnace.

the outside rather than from the garage.

Check the nameplate (see photo above) on the

housing for minimum clearances around the furnace;

ATTIC FURNACE REQUIREMENTS

alternatively, you can do an Internet search for the

Attic furnaces need full access and a sturdy work

furnace model number to see if a PDF of the furnace’s

platform so they can be easily serviced. Furnaces

installation manual is available. Often, at least 1 in.

located in an attic require a minimum access opening

of clearance at the sides and back will be required to

of 22 in. by 30 in., or the dimensions of the appliance,

provide adequate ventilation, though many high-

whichever is larger. They should be no farther than

efficiency units allow even less.

20 ft. from the access opening.

H E A T I N G A N D C O O L I N G S Y S T E M S 179

A solid floor at least 24 in. wide must run from

the access opening to the furnace; in front of the

furnace, the platform should be 30 in. deep, unless

the furnace is closer to or at the attic access opening.

The attic should have sufficient lighting and electrical

outlets for furnace operation and maintenance.

A light switch by the access opening is convenient.

THERMOSTATS AND MASTER SHUTOFFS

A thermostat is a temperature-sensitive switch that

automatically keeps house temperatures within a

preset range. When the air near the thermostat cools,

the switch’s contacts close to complete a circuit and

turn on (send power to) a furnace or boiler. When the

house heats up, the thermostat shuts off the heat.

Heating outlets such as steam radiators or forced-air

To maintain an even house temperature and avoid

registers are often placed beneath windows so that

excess cycling, it’s important to locate a thermostat

rising heat can moderate cool air descending from

window glass.

on an interior wall away from drafts or hot sun. It’s

also important that homeowners clean thermostat

contacts now and then because dust buildup will

on, say, a blower fan, won’t have it unexpectedly turn

interfere with operation. When a thermostat cover

on in response to a thermostat signal.

looks fuzzy with dust, that’s a good time to remove

the cover, inspect the contacts, and blow dust off

OUTLETS

with compressed air.

HVAC systems, including heating outlets, should be

To reduce fuel consumption, replace an older ther-

designed by a specialist. The size and number of out-

mostat with an electronic clock-thermostat that can

lets depends, in part, on house square footage, cli-

be set to reduce the heat at night and raise it in the

mate zone, furnace capacity, and how well the house

morning. Such setbacks can save, on average, 10% to

is air sealed and insulated. As a rule of thumb, every

15% of an energy bill. Thermostats have gotten very

room should have at least one heating outlet, with

brainy, such as The Nest®, a smart thermostat with

rooms larger than 150 sq. ft. having two or more.

a wheel user interface, a Wi-Fi® connection, and sev-

Most jurisdictions require that all habitable rooms

eral sensors, which learns a family’s behaviors and

have heating capable of maintaining a minimum

fine-tunes settings accordingly. Some thermostats

room temperature of 68°F at 3 ft. above the floor and

incorporate smoke alarms and carbon monoxide de-

2 ft. from exterior walls. The installation of portable

tectors, and most can be programmed distantly with

space heaters may not be used to achieve compliance.

a smartphone or tablet.

Radiators or warm air registers are almost always

Every HVAC unit should also have a master shutoff

located along exterior walls, beneath windows, so

switch (“disconnect”) conveniently located so that

that cold air cannot intrude too far into living spaces

power can be shut off quickly for maintenance. If

without encountering the moderating influence of

the shut off is remote from the appliance, it must

warmer air. In older forced-air heating systems, there

be clearly labeled as the furnace disconnect. Mas-

will also be one or more return ducts (aka cold air

ter shutoffs are also helpful when a unit is being

returns), centrally located so that the air returning to

repaired. By turning off the power, someone working

the furnace ducting will not be all that cold.

180 HEATING AND COOLING SYSTEMS

BALANCING A CENTRAL

■

■

If the house has central heating, does each room

HEATING SYSTEM

contain at least a radiator or warm-air register

When it is installed, a central heating system should

along an exterior wall? Are return ducts centrally

be balanced by an HVAC contractor so that heat is

located?

evenly distributed throughout the house. (All rooms

may not have to be the same temperature, but rather

Warm Air Heating Systems

a temperature appropriate to their use. For example,

Warm air systems have evolved over the years.

a workout room might be cooler.) Radiators or warm

Gravity-fed systems are the oldest, with large ducts

air registers near the boiler or furnace tend to be heat

that allowed heated air to rise on its own, without

rich, whereas more distant outlets are heat starved.

aid of a fan. Such furnaces typically had cast-iron

To achieve a balance within a forced-air heating

heat exchangers, and their superheated flue gases

system, dampers inside ducting can be opened or

typically exited up a masonry chimney. Before long,

closed; in hot water systems, throttling valves can

blower fans were added to speed the flow of heat to

be adjusted. Though a homeowner can make minor

rooms, creating the first forced-air heating systems.

adjustments, the system should be rebalanced by

But furnaces were still large and not very efficient.

a pro whenever a furnace or boiler is upgraded or

As the cost of fuel rose, there was a push for greater

rooms are added.

efficiency. Mid-efficiency furnaces were the next de-

velopment, in which blowers moved air more quickly

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

across heat exchangers and extracted more heat from

flue gases. The flue gas, now with less heat to rise out

■■ What type of heating system does the house

of the building, prompted the addition of another

have? Is the heating adequate?

blower to induce draft in the flue.

■■ How old is the heating system? A manufacturer’s

nameplate will usually include a model and serial

The fourth type of warm air system, the high-

number, which can be used to date the unit.

efficiency, condensing furnace, has represented

■■ Has the unit been regularly serviced? Look for

state-of-the-art technology for the last few decades,

a heating contractor’s service tag.

achieving up to 98% annual fuel utilization efficiency

■■ If the furnace is in a closed compartment, is it

(AFUE). Condensing furnaces use a second heat

large enough to access or to remove the unit?

exchanger to extract even more heat from flue gases.

■■ If the furnace is in an attic, does it have solid

Flue gases that cool (about 100°F) don’t rise very

flooring leading to and in front of it?

quickly, so condensing furnaces require a forced

■■ Is there a master shutoff (disconnect) conve-

draft to exhaust combustion gases. (This is why they

niently located, so that electricity to the furnace

can be vented horizontally.) Condensing furnaces

or boiler can be turned off quickly?

also provide a drain so condensate can exit the

■■ Is the thermostat centrally located? Ideally, it

should be on an interior wall, away from drafts

building—greatly reducing the likelihood that water

and not placed too close to a heating register

vapor will rust out furnace parts.

or radiator.

■■ Is there a programmable thermostat? Older

thermostats may still work but may not be as

efficient as newer electronic thermostats that

can be programmed.

■■ If there are two or more thermostats, the house

has zoned heating. Do all thermostats work?

■■ Are room heaters being used as well? What type?

H E A T I N G A N D C O O L I N G S Y S T E M S 181

NATURAL-GAS SAFETY

Fuel oil, lp gas, coal, and

not be used for exterior applications

natural gas are among the most com-

such as spa or pool heaters or on roof-

mon fuel sources, but natural gas is

top HVAC units; check local codes.

by far the most commonly used fuel

AUTOMATIC SHUTOFFS

in modern furnaces in North America.

Special valves triggered by vibration

Following are gas-related safety con-

or uneven gas flow are now being

cerns that home inspectors frequently

required in seismic and hurricane risk

mention. Readers who want a more

areas. They will shut down the gas

exhaustive treatment of gas-related

automatically. It’s very important that

safety issues should visit the web-

the property residents know how to

site of the American Gas Association

reset these devices after the triggering

(www.aga.org). Last, local building Gas meters, gas piping, and appliances

event, such as an earthquake, tornado,

departments have the final say for

need protection from impact whether

or hurricane.

what’s required in your area.

located outside or in a garage. This

concrete-filled bollard is designed to

GAS PIPING

protect a meter and the gas piping from

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

Approved gas piping includes rigid

vehicle impact.

galvanized steel, rigid black steel,

■

■

Gas meters, supply lines, and

and CSST flexible gas tubing; some

appliances must be protected from

types of plastic piping are approved

vehicle impact.

only for use outside and underground.

■

■

A furnace located in a garage should

Gas piping needs to be properly

be in an isolated compartment with

supported, typically every 6 ft. and

its own source of fresh air or have its

at joints.

ignition source at least 18 in. above

Unapproved piping includes cast

floor level.

iron, copper, brass, and aluminum,

■

■

The only limitation on gas-piping

though some exceptions are made for

unions is that they not be concealed.

copper and brass tubing for natural

gas with low amounts of hydrogen

■

■

There must be an accessible drip leg

sulfide.

before gas supply piping connects

Gas pipe unions have two approved

to an appliance if there is water

locations: next to an appliance or near

GAS CONNECTORS

vapor or sediment in the gas sup-

the gas meter-to-house connection.

A gas connector is the flexible tubing

ply. (Check with utility company to

Isolated unions such as this one might

that connects a gas-fueled appliance

ascertain.)

leak gas undetected.

such as a furnace to rigid gas-supply

■

■

Appliance connectors must be pro-

piping. Modern connectors are typi-

tected from damage; rigid piping,

cally corrugated and have a shiny gray

not a flexible connector, is required

plastic coating. Flexible stainless-steel

where a gas line passes through the

or bright yellow connectors are also

furnace housing and house walls or

found on some new equipment.

floors.

UNAPPROVED CONNECTORS

■

■

Gas piping cannot enter a building

Copper connectors may be subject

below grade (basement wall). If a

to corrosion from sulfur compounds

gas line is otherwise passing through

found in natural gas; corrosion flakes

a concrete wall, it must be sleeved.

off the interior of the tubing and can

■

■

A main valve is required ahead of the

clog pilot lights and other openings.

meter; the main meter valve must be

Aluminum tubing connections, being

accessible.

Rigid gas supply piping should extend

soft, tend to leak. Corrugated brass

■

■

through the metal furnace walls. This

A shutoff valve is required ahead of

flexible gas connector could be easily

connectors may corrode so should

the gas connector to the appliance.

damaged by the sharp metal edges.

182 HEATING AND COOLING SYSTEMS

WARM AIR RISES, COOL AIR FALLS

Warm air rises, which is the basis of every convectional

heating system from woodstoves to today’s high-

efficiency condensing furnaces. Heated in a furnace

surrounded by sheet-metal housing, warm air is

routed by supply ducts to rooms, where it enters via

supply registers in floors, walls, or ceilings. Because

warm air takes up more space and exerts more pres-

sure, it displaces cool air in the room, which returns

to the furnace to be reheated and recirculated.

Warm air systems work best if both the supply air

and return air travel through ducts. In some older

homes there are no return-air ducts—simply a

This old octopus-style, gravity-fed furnace is durable

plenum in a wall or a floor cavity—so cooler return

and quiet, but fuel inefficient. Moreover, its large ducts air simply meanders downward from one floor to

are wrapped in asbestos. Before long, it should be

replaced with a new efficient furnace and new ducting.

the next until it eventually reaches the furnace in the

basement. Such outdated systems are inefficient and

at times unsafe because the return air may contain

because airflow is so sluggish that filters might stop

combustion gases or draw dirt from the basement

it altogether. One can add a fan to a gravity-fed system

floor into the burner. Also, such undirected, cooler

but given the age and inefficiency of the burner, a

return air typically needs more fuel to reheat it.

homeowner is probably best advised to replace the

Adding a blower fan to warm air systems to force air

system, including its ducts.

through the ducts was a great improvement because it

Speaking of which, the housing and ducts of an

delivered warmth more quickly to rooms, and because

octopus furnace will probably be wrapped with

return air is always ducted in forced-air heating sys-

asbestos. If it is in good repair and not fraying, it’s

tems it requires less fuel to reheat and recirculate.

probably safe. But homeowners should get a thorough

hazmat assessment (see Chapter 14), including tests

GRAVITY-FED SYSTEMS

for airborne asbestos fibers at registers, especially if

Gravity-fed warm air systems, which lack blower fans,

there are young children around.

are outdated but you still see them in older houses.

Gravity-fed systems typically feature large furnaces

FORCED-AIR ADVANTAGES

with several oversize ducts sticking out of the top of

There are several reasons forced-air heating systems

the housing, rather like octopus legs. The ducts are

(including mid-efficiency and condensing furnaces)

big to reduce air resistance. Lacking a fan to move the

are the most commonly installed home heating setups.

air, convection must do all the work of getting heat to

Forced-air systems are clean, especially with gas-

the rooms. Rooms heat slowly, which is perhaps the

fired burners. If air filters are replaced regularly,

main complaint of this system.

registers are vacuumed from time to time, and duct-

So many of these systems are still in use because

ing is sealed against leaks, the system’s air quality

they are quiet (no motors or rattling ducts) and need

will be good. Improved ventilation is an asset to

electricity only for thermostat and burner controls.

house health.

(One suspects that they are also left in place because

In cold winter climates, integral humidifiers are

they are immense and would be hugely disruptive to

packaged with many new forced-air systems; and

remove.) Gravity-fed systems often lack air filters,

humidifiers can usually be added to older systems.

H E A T I N G A N D C O O L I N G S Y S T E M S 183

FORCED-AIR HEATING SYSTEM

Cool air falls.

Warm air rises.

Heat register

Return air duct

Supply duct

Flue

Humidifier

Burner

Blower

Central air-conditioning is an option. Because the

Forced-air heating systems

system already has a blower fan and ducts to all the

Forced-air heating (FAH) is also known as forced

rooms, A/C can be easily added, though rooms with

hot air, so you are likely to see either term used.

ceiling registers will deliver cooled air more effi-

FAH systems have become increasingly complex,

ciently. (Cool air falls.)

but their essential elements are a furnace in which

Forced-air furnaces are less expensive to install

a burner heats a heat exchanger, vent flues that

than hot water or steam boilers.

carry off exhaust gases, a blower fan to force the air

Homeowners can adjust individual duct dampers

through supply-air and return-air ducting to room

to increase or reduce heat to a room, though whole-

registers that provide heat, and one or more furnace

house balancing should be done by an HVAC

control switches.

professional.

INSPECTING A BURNER

There are no pipes to freeze and burst during a

In older furnaces (15 years or more), an inspector

power outage, and no leaks at radiators to damage

can look at the burner flame and the heat exchanger.

flooring. So this system is especially well suited to

Sometimes one must remove a screw or two to gain

the Snow Belt.

access, but it’s easily done. Burners will vary accord-

ing to the type of fuel and the age of the furnace,

184 HEATING AND COOLING SYSTEMS

Heat exchanger cracks such as this one can leak

carbon monoxide and other gases into living spaces.

Fortunately, home CO alarms can alert occupants

of excessive CO, prompting them to call a heating

contractor.

a cracked heat exchanger, though some movement

Modern Plus 92/95 condensing furnaces can extract

from blower vibration is normal. Look for soot, indi-

up to 95% of the available heat; their exhaust gases

cating incomplete combustion, both inside the fur-

are so cool that flues and vents are often PVC plastic.

nace housing and at room registers. Fuel or exhaust

Because water vapor condenses in cool exhaust, the

furnace must have special tubes or drains to carry the

smells in living spaces may be further indications of

water to an approved exterior location. Though this

a cracked heat exchanger.

furnace is relatively new, the bottom of its housing is

rusting, perhaps because of leaky condensate pipe

connections.

INSPECTING A HEAT EXCHANGER

The heat exchanger is the metal box that contains the

burner flame and directs the flue gases to the vent pipe.

but the basics will be the same. In newer systems,

The heat exchanger transmits heat from the flame in-

accessing the heat exchanger is more difficult and is

side the box to the air that moves over the metal box’s

typically done only by an HVAC specialist.

outside surface. Each time the exchanger is heated its

If the burner and heat exchanger can be accessed,

metal expands and then contracts, which eventually

the inspector should observe the flame. Does the

leads to metal fatigue and cracking. Poor air circula-

flame lift off the burners? Is its color more yellow

tion due to dirty air filters or fan blades can also

or blue? (Blue flames are hotter and indicate more

cause the exchanger to overheat and fail prematurely.

complete combustion; yellow or orange flames

Some furnaces have several burner/exchanger

indicate less complete combustion.) Is the flame lazy

covers that can be unscrewed for better access. An

or erratic? (It should be steady.) Check for excessive

inspector should use a mirror and flashlight to ex-

flame roll-out at the heat exchanger opening when

amine the accessible portions of the heat exchanger

the burners ignite, which may be caused by improper

before and after the furnace heats up. But be sure to

burner or pilot adjustment or may indicate insuffi-

close the blower compartment door before turning

cient combustion air.

on the furnace.

Observe the flame as the blower turns on. Look for

Furnaces installed in the 1940s and 1950s often had

flame deflection or movement, which may indicate

heavy-gauge metal heat exchangers that were less

H E A T I N G A N D C O O L I N G S Y S T E M S 185

Almost all furnaces that have been used regularly

for over 20 years are highly inefficient; complete

replacement with an energy-efficient system and new

ducting should be considered. It’s best to recommend

that all older furnace's be serviced by a qualified heat-

ing contractor.

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

■

■

Note the type of warm air system in the house. If

you are not sure of the furnace’s age, copy the

manufacturer and model number from its

nameplate and do an Internet search. (General

condition is much more important than age in

determining the furnace's potential lifespan.)

■

■

A combustible-gas leak detector can help locate

Is there corrosion around the base of the furnace

heat exchanger cracks or flue-gas spillage or reassure

housing (look inside the housing as well)?

homeowners that no leaks currently exist.

■

■

If it’s a gravity-fed system with large octopus

ducts rising out of the top of the plenum, they are

probably covered with asbestos. Is the asbestos

susceptible to cracking than furnaces made in the

intact or fraying? Have an expert in asbestos re-

1970s. In older furnaces the flame was also farther

mediation inspect it to be sure it’s safe to operate.

from the exchanger, making them less fuel-efficient

■

■

Inspect the burner flame if possible. Does the

but prolonging furnace life. Depending on the shape

flame lift off the burners? Is its color more blue

than yellow?

of the crack, a cracked heat exchanger could lead to

■

■

When the burners ignite, do flames roll out of

excessive levels of carbon dioxide and carbon monox-

the heat exchanger opening? Do scorch marks

ide in the house, especially if the house construction

around the opening indicate an ongoing roll-out

is relatively airtight.

problem?

The danger of a cracked heat exchanger is often

■

■

When the furnace is running, check living spaces

exaggerated. A crack in the heat exchanger does not

for exhaust or fuel smells.

necessarily mean that the furnace is unsafe to operate.

■

■

Use a mirror and flashlight to inspect visible

However, existing damage will likely deteriorate till

parts of the heat exchanger.

the unit becomes unsafe. For this reason, most heat-

■

■

Can you see cracks or splits in the heat

ing contractors and utility companies recommend that

exchanger? Corrosion or rust?

furnaces with cracked heat exchangers be replaced.

If you suspect that there is a cracked heat exchanger,

FURNACE CONTROLS

recommend a thorough examination by a heating

In addition to the master shutoff switch discussed

contractor. Heat exchangers in some furnaces,

on p. 180, forced-air heating systems typically have especially horizontal models and modern high-three thermostatic (temperature-sensitive) switches

efficiency types, can’t be visually examined. Many

as well: a main thermostat, a fan control (blower

HVAC contractors and home inspectors carry com-

control), and a high-limit control (high-temperature

bustible gas detectors to assess small heat exchanger

limit control).

cracks. Residents should be advised to install CO

A MAIN THERMOSTAT communicates with the

alarms immediately outside of all bedrooms, espe-

furnace burner. After the homeowner sets a tempera-

cially if the furnace is old and worn.

ture point for living spaces, thermostat sensors keep

186 HEATING AND COOLING SYSTEMS

CARBON MONOXIDE DETECTORS

Carbon monoxide is an odorless,

colorless, tasteless gas produced by incomplete

combustion; it is toxic to humans and animals. In

large doses it can kill; in smaller, sustained doses it

can cause health problems. Almost half of U.S. states

and several Canadian provinces require that carbon

monoxide detectors be installed in new homes with

a fuel-burning appliance. Many jurisdictions are now

requiring CO detectors and smoke alarms be installed

at resale. NFPA guidelines recommend that CO

detectors “shall be centrally located outside of each

This hydronic gauge shows temperature and pressure

separate sleeping area in the immediate vicinity of

expressed in pounds per square inch. Before inspect-

the bedrooms,” at locations specified by the device

ing a furnace or boiler, familiarize yourself with normal operating ranges for that system.

manufacturer. Detectors are widely available, afford-

able ($15 to $60), and can be AC or battery powered,

some by batteries that last 6 years or 7 years. Com-

house temperatures within a few degrees of the set

bination smoke and CO detectors are also available.

point. To work correctly, the thermostat must be

Considering their reliability, modest cost, and easy

installation, CO detectors should be in every home.

clean, level, and securely mounted. An inspector

should note if the device is loose or damaged and then,

after removing the cover, note if it is out of level or if its contact points are dusty. Excess dust can insulate

thermostat contacts and block electrical current.

A FAN CONTROL usually has two settings at

burner. The factory setting on the high limit control

roughly 110°F and 125°F. The fan turns on when the

should not be adjusted. If the fan control switch is

temperature around the heat exchanger reaches the

defective and does not turn on, the high-limit switch

higher setting and off at the lower setting. If the tem-

should shut the burner down between 175°F and

peratures are too close, the fan will blow cold air in

200°F to prevent heat exchanger burnout or failure.

to the room. This is called short cycling. If the tem-

OTHER SWITCHES. Appliances with pilot light

perature difference is too great, heat will be wasted

ignition systems should have a pilot safety control

up the flue or vent and the delay may cause the heat

valve that automatically closes and shuts off the gas

exchanger to overheat.

flow when the thermocouple at the pilot cools and

If the furnace gets hot and several minutes pass

ceases to generate the current necessary to keep the

before the blower turns on, this may indicate that

valve open. Fuel oil–fired systems use a bimetallic

the blower switch is defective. Tapping on the

stack switch or more commonly a photoelectric cell

blower switch at the front of the furnace can some-

to turn the fuel oil supply off if there is no ignition.

times cause it to turn on, but the switch should

Glow plugs or hot surface ignition systems are com-

be replaced.

mon in newer gas-fired systems. They are flameless

A HIGH-LIMIT CONTROL keeps the heat ex-

and require a device to prove ignition before the gas

changer from overheating. When a preset tempera-

valve will open.

ture is reached, this control turns off the fuel to the

H E A T I N G A N D C O O L I N G S Y S T E M S 187

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

■■ How old is the thermostat? Replacing old ones

with new programmable models saves fuel.

■■ You may want to remove the thermostat cover.

Is the unit securely mounted? Is it clogged

with dust?

■■ If the gas burner shuts off before the blower

comes on, the fan control may be defective.

■■ Does the older blower fan short cycle—that is,

stop and start repeatedly within short time inter-

vals? (Newer furnaces have inducer fans that turn

on first and run continuously to vent exhausts,

which is not a problem.)

CONDENSING FURNACES

To recap briefly: Conventional furnaces are roughly

60% to 65% fuel efficient, with most of the energy

Because every installation is not perfect, regular

lost as superheated exhaust gases (450°F to 500°F)

servicing is essential. This relatively new condensing

disappearing up a chimney. That waste was tolerable

furnace has leaking pipes that could cause substantial

damage over time.

when fuel was cheap, but following the oil crises of

the 1970s HVAC manufacturers got serious about

producing a new generation of efficient furnaces.

needs to be drained off by condensate pipes. Because

Condensing furnaces extracted more heat from

this condensate contains chemicals from combus-

combustion gases with a more convoluted heat

tion, it is acidic, so it’s important that it be directed exchanger—in other words, increasing the exposure of

away from furnace parts and the building itself.

the gas flame to the metal heat exchanger. Most con-

Plus 90 furnace condensate piping should be at

densing furnaces also have a second heat exchanger.

least 3⁄4 in. in diameter and have a slope of 1⁄4 in. per Thus the temperatures of flue gases venting from high-foot, discharging to an approved plumbing fixture or

efficiency furnaces range from 100°F to 110°F.

drain location. The left photo on p. 205 shows what As noted earlier, prolonging the gas flame con-happens when a condensate drain is allowed to drip

tact with heat exchangers increases drag and makes

onto siding, potentially a big problem and entirely

chimney drafts sluggish. This was solved by add-

unnecessary. Condensing furnace systems vary

ing an induced draft blower to push flue gases out a

significantly, so review manufacturer’s installation

sidewall or roof vent. Condensing or Plus 90 furnaces

specs for each system.

have exhaust gases that are so cool they are typically

vented with PVC plastic or stainless-steel vent pipe,

COMBUSTION AIR

and conventional metal or masonry chimneys are no

To safely operate furnaces and other heating appli-

longer needed. PVC vent pipes can also be run almost

ances, there must be adequate separation between

horizontally, although a slight pitch is usually speci-

combustion and recirculating air. The opening to

fied when the flue also provides drainage for conden-

a return-air duct should be at least 10 ft. from the

sation moisture.

furnace firebox and draft diverter. The same distance

Speaking of which, all combustion gases contain

should be maintained between a return-air duct and

water vapor. And when flue gases are cooled down to,

a water heater burner and its draft diverter (see the

say, 110°F, water vapor condenses into water, which

drawing on p. 190).

188 HEATING AND COOLING SYSTEMS

INSPECTOR’S NOTE

Despite the superior performance of

condensing furnaces, builders concerned about costs

are still installing mid-efficiency furnaces (aka Plus

80s) because they satisfy minimum energy-efficiency

standards. Plus 80s sometimes scrimp on details

such as venting. In some models, condensate flows

down the vent pipe and into the draft inducer or heat

exchanger, causing corrosion and premature failure.

It is not uncommon to find corrosion or deposits on or

below the inducer motor inside the furnace.

This 85% efficient, draft-induced furnace is

starting to rust because its design does not

adequately drain the condensate that results

from cooler flue-gas temperatures.

Furnaces in sealed closets or compartments should

drafting). An HVAC contractor can use a digital

be provided with adequate combustion air from the

combustion analyzer to check the condition.

building exterior. These closets, if located below attics or above crawl spaces, typically need air openings

BLOWER FANS

within the upper 12 in. and the lower 12 in. of the en-

In forced-air systems, heated air is distributed by a

closure. Exterior air openings should be screened to

blower fan mounted above, below, or beside the heat

prevent animal entry. Follow manufacturer specs when

exchanger. In downdraft systems the blower is

sizing pipe to bring in combustion air; 3-in. pipe is

mounted over the heat exchanger. Counterflow or

common for condensing furnaces.

updraft systems have the blower mounted either

Dust or dirt along the furnace compartment door

below or beside the main furnace compartment.

edges may indicate a low-pressure area inside the

Your HVAC inspection should include the blower

furnace compartment and insufficient combustion

fan compartment, which typically has an access door.

air. Soot or signs of flame roll-out at the front of the

If the furnace is older (10 years to 15 years), turn off

burner compartment may indicate inadequate com-

the master shutoff switch before opening the access

bustion air.

door so that the blower fan cannot start up and

In larger rooms of ordinary tightness, the space

possibly injure you. Modern furnaces have an auto-

itself can provide combustion air as long as there is

disconnect switch that prevents blower operation

at least 50 cu. ft. per 1,000 Btu. If bath fans, kitchen

when the door is open. (If a blower access door is

range hoods, clothes dryers, or fireplaces also draw

loose or missing, write it up as a safety hazard: Flue

that air, operating them at the same time may create

gases could be drawn into the blower.)

negative pressure (see p. 215) in which combustion After opening the access door, look for dust ac-gases may be pulled back into living spaces (back-

cumulation on the blower blades. Blades fuzzy with

H E A T I N G A N D C O O L I N G S Y S T E M S 189

MINIMUM DISTANCES TO AIR RETURN

Water heater

Draft diverter

Forced-air

furnace

Firebox

Burner

Air return

Air return must be a minimum of 10 ft. from

the draft diverters or burners of the furnace

and/or water heater.

dust don’t move air very well, which can significantly

reduce furnace efficiency and overheat the heat

exchanger. Older furnaces have squirrel-cage fans

with blower motors that require regular lubrication

and fan belts that need periodic adjustments. When

you press gently on a properly adjusted belt, it should

deflect between 1⁄2 in. and 3⁄4 in. Check the fan belt for excessive wear, and the fan and motor for looseness,

damage, and missing bolts. Modern furnaces have

motor and blower assemblies that are self-lubricating

and do not have belts.

Shut the blower access door, restore power, and

turn on the heat. When the blower is running, listen

for vibrations and squealing or banging sounds, which

usually indicate worn bearings or a loose or damaged

Older forced-air heating systems rely on belt-driven

fan belt. While the blower is running, check each room

blower fans; check their tension and wear. Fans with

to see if air is coming out of the registers. Inspectors

dusty blades don’t move air efficiently, causing ex-

changers to overheat.

cannot determine if the heat supply is adequate but

190 HEATING AND COOLING SYSTEMS

they can state whether supply air is moving through

ple with allergies and chemical sensitivities, media

the ducts and reaching the heat supply registers.

filters are very efficient and require replacing much

less often, perhaps once or twice a year, depending

AIR FILTERS

on interior air quality.

Air filters should be checked monthly and changed or

CHECK THE PLENUM. After removing the air fil-

cleaned twice annually. Air filters remove dust from

ter, look into the plenum, typically a metal box where

house air and prevent dust buildup on the blower

the air return ducting is attached, located above, below, blades, which can greatly reduce blower efficiency,

or at the side of the furnace. Note the presence of dust, decrease heat distribution, and lead to heat exchanger

debris, asbestos (white or gray paper tape), and—if

failure. Air filters are especially important in prevent-

there is a light outside the plenum—air leaks. Some

ing dust accumulation on A/C evaporator coils. If a

blower enclosures or plenums located at the bottom

house is undergoing remodeling, filters should be

of the furnace have openings to the wood or concrete

checked periodically for extra dust.

basement floor. These areas need to be covered and

ELECTROSTATIC FILTERS filter the finest par-

sealed to prevent moisture and dust from being

ticles and therefore need cleaning frequently. They

drawn into the furnace air flow. There should be an

should be washed in the shower or with a garden

airtight cover over the air filter slot if it is located in hose spraying in the opposite direction of the system

the return-air ducting.

air flow. Pleated disposable filters have a surface that

is three times to four times larger and need replacing

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

less often.

MEDIA TYPE FILTERS have large (3 in. to 4 in.

■

■

To prevent exhaust fumes from being sucked into

ducting, air returns must be at least 10 ft. from

thick) replaceable cartridges and require a special com-

burners and draft diverters of the furnace and

partment. Considered to be the best solution for peo-

water heater (if they share the space).

■

■

If the furnace is in a sealed compartment, does

it have a source of outside air? Soot or flame roll-

out around the burner door may indicate insuf-

ficient combustion air.

■

■

In airtight houses, negative pressurization can

create backdrafting. Look for soot or warm,

moist air near the underside of the furnace draft

diverter.

■

■

Does the blower fan have an access door? Write

it up if it’s missing.

■

■

Are blower blades clean or clogged with dust?

Dusty fan blades don’t move air efficiently.

■

■

If a fan belt runs between the fan and its motor,

is it correctly adjusted?

■

■

When the blower is running, do you hear squeal-

ing or banging sounds?

■

■

What kind of air filter does the furnace have? Is it

clean or clogged with dust?

■

■

Remove the air filter and look inside the plenum.

Are surfaces clean or filled with dust and debris?

Large, replaceable media-type filters are considered

Can you see light where plenum seams have

more effective than the thin types and are preferred by

separated or where ducts join?

many professionals.

H E A T I N G A N D C O O L I N G S Y S T E M S 191

from the furnace. In either case, branch ducts may

be rectangular or round and often have a damper to

adjust airflow. As noted earlier, there will also be at

FURNACE SPILLAGE

least one centrally located return-air duct (cold air

return) that circulates partially conditioned air back

As noted elsewhere, air-return ducting

to the plenum to be reheated (or recooled).

should be airtight, including its connection to the ple-

CHECK FOR RUST. Furnace plenums and ducting

num. Furnaces may be installed on concrete floors or

wooden platforms, allowing gaps between the furnace

should be at least 4 in. above the ground. Inspect

plenum and the floor. This can create spillage or mixing

ducting for its general condition, soil contact, holes

of combustion and supply air. One effective method to

or gaps, sagging or insufficient support, and asbestos

prevent this is to install a sheet metal floor inside the insulation. If the furnace is installed in an area with

bottom of the blower compartment and to seal the

perimeter with caulking. The door on the blower com-

flood lines (water stains or sediment residue), carefully partment should also fit snugly and be relatively airtight.

check all sheet-metal components for signs of water

stains or rust. Probe the bottom of a furnace plenum

for damage if it is below an old subarea flood level.

DUCT SYSTEMS SHOULD BE AIRTIGHT, with

joints sealed with metallic tape, mastic, gaskets, or

SUPPLY AND RETURN-AIR DUCTING

other means. Fabric duct tape isn’t durable; it becomes

In a forced-air system, supply ducting distributes

brittle and gets unstuck. Supply and air-return duct-

heated (or cooled) air throughout the house. There

ing and plenums in unheated areas should be insu-

are two primary configurations for supply ducting:

lated. Examine insulation for damage. Animals can

an extended plenum system with a large rectangular

pull insulation off pipes. If ducts are wrapped with

duct that serves as a trunk line, with smaller branch

fiberglass insulation, dark stains on the insulation

ducts running to room outlets, and a radial distribu-

indicate air leakage at ducting connections, which

tion system in which each branch duct runs directly

can significantly reduce heating system efficiency.

Furnace plenums and ducting should be at least 4 in.

Old metal ducting in subfloor areas often rusts out in

above the ground. Plenums that come in contact with

time. The black stains on the fiberglass insulation are

the soil frequently rust out.

caused by air leakage and indicate a significant waste

of energy.

192 HEATING AND COOLING SYSTEMS

DUCTING MUST BE PROPERLY SUPPORTED.

Sheet-metal and rigid-fibrous ducting needs support

every 6 ft. Soft ducting will sag at supports that are

HUMIDIFIERS

too far apart, cutting off the flow of air; it should have 11⁄2-in.-wide galvanized strapping every 4 ft.

As household air is recirculated by

FREE AIRFLOW THROUGHOUT THE BUILDING

forced-air heating systems, it becomes increasingly

is essential for a forced-air system to be effective. Based dry, which can be uncomfortable for inhabitants

upon CFM design, a 3⁄4-in. to 1-in. gap beneath bed-

during cold winter months. Humidifiers increase the

room doors should allow for sufficient return airflow.

moisture in the air, which is also helpful to the heat-

ing system itself. Because moist air feels warmer,

SUPPLY REGISTERS AND

homeowners can use lower temperature settings and

reduce fuel use.

RETURN-AIR GRILLES

When inspecting an older HVAC system, examine

Warm air registers are almost always located along

the humidifier reservoir to make sure that it is not

exterior walls, beneath windows, to moderate cooler

leaking onto the heat exchanger, which could cause it

air sheeting (descending) from glass, which conducts

to rust and fail prematurely. Also note mineral build-

up, mold, or bacteria, which can grow in always-wet

cold. In forced-air heating systems, there will also

drum humidifiers. (The water in the reservoir will look

be one or more return ducts, centrally located so that

scummy and may smell bad.) The humidifier should

the air returning to the furnace ducting will not be all

be drained and cleaned periodically or replaced with

that cold.

an atomizer humidifier, which injects moisture into

Registers may be located on the floors, walls, or

furnace airflow.

ceilings. The location is not as critical with forced-air furnaces as with gravity. Look for debris in the ducting below floor-mounted registers. You will almost

certainly find dust and perhaps construction debris,

and in some older systems, asbestos tape used to seal

duct and furnace joints. Air flowing over asbestos

in a heat register may circulate fibers throughout

the house. If you see asbestos tape when inspecting

furnace plenums and ducts, and suspect it in supply

registers, recommend that any asbestos in the airflow

be abated (removed, wrapped, painted) by a qualified

contractor.

Note on your report if any supply registers con-

tain dark soot deposits or have a lingering smell of

unburned fuel, which may indicate a cracked heat

exchanger or faulty draft. Last, note the force of

heated air rising from each supply register when the

blower is running. Homeowners can adjust damp-

ers in branch ducts to increase or decrease flow to

individual rooms, but rebalancing the whole system

should be done by an HVAC contractor.

Homes that have been remodeled often have supply

registers that become filled with sawdust and other

debris. They should be checked and vacuumed clean

as needed.

H E A T I N G A N D C O O L I N G S Y S T E M S 193

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

exchangers, rusting vent pipes, and otherwise short-

ening the life of a heating system and reducing its

■■ Are all furnace plenums and ducting at least 4 in.

efficiency. So water must also be vented or drained.

above the ground? Note ducts that have holes

or gaps, or sagging or insufficient support.

Inspecting vent pipes is primarily a search for cor-

■■ If the furnace is installed in an area that floods

rosion, especially in older systems. Corrosion may

periodically, scrutinize the bottom for stains

be caused by restricted vent air flow, a flue that is too or rust.

long, inadequately sloped piping, flue pipes with an

■■ Ducts must be airtight. Joints should be sealed

improper vertical-to-horizontal ratio, or flue gases

with metallic tape, mastic, or gaskets but not

that cool too rapidly and so condense in the flue

fabric duct tape.

piping and cause corrosion. This moisture can also

■■ Do you see dark stains on ducts wrapped with

enter heat exchangers causing corrosion and heat

fiberglass insulation? Those stains indicate

air leaks.

exchanger failure.

■■

Inspectors must also keep an eye out for flue pipes

Note sagging ducts. Rigid ducting needs support

every 6 ft.; flexible ducting, every 4 ft.

that are a fire hazard because they pass too close to

■■ Do bedrooms have return-air grilles or gaps

combustible surfaces such as wood framing. The

beneath doors to allow return airflow?

symptoms are obvious: charred or scorched wood,

■■ Does the HVAC system have a humidifier? If it

discolored siding, melted pipe insulation, and make-

has a drum humidifier, does it look as though it

has been maintained or is the water scummy and

foul smelling?

■■ Remove a floor-mounted register and look down

into the boot. Is it full of dust and debris? If so,

all registers should be vacuumed. Fraying white

or gray tape inside is probably asbestos.

Venting

Venting is the system of flue pipes, connectors, and

other components that convey combustion gases

safely out of a house. Furnaces and boilers vary

greatly, so vent assemblies must follow manufac-

turer specifications. For example, flue gases from

conventional furnaces can exceed 500°F, whereas

high-efficiency condensing furnace flue gases may

be only 100°F. Obviously, their vent pipes can be very

different. A general inspector is not an HVAC expert

but if you have a working knowledge of furnace types

(see p. 181), you will have a better idea of what type of venting each requires.

COMMON FAILURE POINTS

Combustion produces water vapor and toxic gases. A

A forced–hot water system, seen from above. The

toxic gas such as carbon monoxide can poison people

object that looks like an inverted pail ( right) is a draft diverter. The red cylinder to its left is a circulating

and animals, so clearly it needs to be vented, but

pump. The large black piping that rises out of the top

water vapor can also do great harm by corroding heat

of the boiler is insulated supply piping.

194 HEATING AND COOLING SYSTEMS

Water from gas-fired appliance flue gases can rust

out a poorly sloped metal connector in a few years.

A properly installed Type B connector would be less

likely to corrode or rust.

Vent flues can get very hot and are a potential fire haz-

ard. This pipe cap should terminate at least 1 ft. above

shift insulators or heat deflectors installed by some-

the dormer roof at left.

one who realized there was a problem. Flue pipes that

are wrong for the system or were installed improperly

are fire hazards.

These materials heat up slowly and the low tem-

perature may restrict the upward flow of flue gases.

VENTING METHODS

For this reason many manufacturers specify that only

There are several ways to vent heating appliances:

listed galvanized sheet-metal vents that terminate

1. Terra cotta–lined masonry flues (chimneys) or rigid above the roofline be used on their equipment.

cement asbestos flues (Transite™).

(Type B, double-wall galvanized-steel vent piping is

2. Type B vents, typically double-wall metal vent

most often specified.)

piping that requires a minimal 1-in. clearance to

NOTE : Ungalvanized blue-metal and aluminum

combustibles surfaces.

clothes-dryer vent piping are not approved materials 3. Type BW vents, oval-shaped Type B vents designed and should be replaced with proper galvanized steel

to be installed above wall furnaces.

piping.

4. Type L vents for fuel oil–fired appliances.

Most jurisdictions will allow some furnaces and

5. Plastic PVC pipe vents for high-efficiency, condens-water heaters to reuse the older outdated vertical

ing appliances (see p. 185).

flues as long as their installation does not violate the

6. Integral vent assemblies for direct-vent wall fur-equipment manufacturer's specifications.

naces (see p. 202) and exterior appliances.

NOTE : Single-wall metal vent connectors between

VENT RISE

the appliance and the vent require a 6-in. clearance to

The general rule is that the vertical portion of an

combustibles.

older style metal or masonry vent system should be

at least one-third longer than the horizontal por-

OUTDATED VENTING

tion. Vent pipes that slope above 45° are considered

Various materials have been used in the past to vent

vertical. The longer vertical portion is necessary to

gas heating appliances. The earliest were brick or

provide sufficient upward movement in the gases to

masonry chimneys built onsite. These were followed

prevent flue-gas spilling at the appliance. Actual vent

by factory-made, tile-lined, sheet-metal flues called

and flue design should be determined by a qualified

patent flues or cement asbestos flues, or the brand

heating contractor after a review of the manufac-

name Transite.

turer’s specifications.

H E A T I N G A N D C O O L I N G S Y S T E M S 195

INSTALLATION RULES OF THUMB

spillage, in which unburned gases spill from the

■■ Single-wall vents and connectors (where allowed)

hood. Spillage can be a life-threatening condition

require 6-in. clearance to combustible surfaces;

and requires immediate correction.

Type B, double-wall vents and connectors require

Flue-gas spillage can be caused by inadequate

1-in. clearance to combustibles.

venting, improper configuration, or damaged vent

■■ All unused openings in a venting system must be

piping, such as a rain cap that has been mashed down

closed or capped.

at the top of a vent pipe. After the furnace has been

■■ A vent or vent connector should not penetrate or

operating for 3 minutes to 5 minutes, place your

enter an air duct or plenum.

hand or your inspection mirror at the furnace draft

■■ Vent piping in occupied spaces should be enclosed

hood. You will be able to feel dampness or observe

to avoid personal contact.

fogging on the mirror if flue gases are spilling from

■■ Furnaces and water heaters shall not vent into a

the venting system.

fireplace or fireplace chimney.

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

VENT DAMPERS

■

■

Single-wall vents and connectors (where al-

Vent dampers, which are electrically or mechanically

lowed) require a 6-in. clearance to combustible

operated, may be installed to prevent heat loss up

surfaces; Type B, double-wall vents and connec-

the vent when the appliance is not in operation. Vent

tors require a 1-in. clearance to combustibles.

dampers must be designed to prevent the burner from

If you see charred or scorched wood, or melted

pipe insulation, these clearances were ignored.

firing up when the damper is in a closed position.

■

■

What type of vent piping and connectors have

been used? Note unapproved materials being

FLUE-GAS SPILLAGE

used for venting, such as ungalvanized blue-

The flues or vent connectors are connected to a

metal and aluminum clothes-dryer piping.

draft hood at the furnace. The draft hood provides

■

■

Is the vent pipe sufficiently sloped to carry off

an opening for air to flow into the flue above and

flue gases safely?

improves the upward flow of flue gases. A draft hood

■

■

Inspecting vent pipes is primarily a search for

that is rusted or discolored may indicate flue-gas

corrosion, especially in older systems. Do you see

pipe connectors and sections of vent pipe with

little (or negative) slope? They frequently rust

out first.

■

■

Use a mirror or a bare hand to detect the moist,

warm air of flue spillage near a furnace draft

diverter.

Hot Water and Steam

Heating Systems

Hot water and steam systems are frequently called

hydronic heating systems because both use some

form of water to transfer heat throughout a house.

The oldest form of hydronic heating is a single-

Backdrafting is a reverse flow of air down a vent or flue pipe steam system, in which steam rises in large

pipe or chimney. Instead of rising, combustion gases

(3-in.) supply pipes, heats cast-iron room radiators,

spill out into living spaces. By holding a mirror next to condenses, and then flows downward along the

the draft hood, you can detect spillage: Water vapor

will fog the mirror. In time, the draft hood will rust.

bottom of the supply pipes, back to the boiler, to be

196 HEATING AND COOLING SYSTEMS

cooled water to the boiler. Far more efficient than

gravity hot water or steam, forced–hot water systems

use 1⁄2-in. to 1-in. distribution piping and a boiler that is much smaller. Because forced–hot water systems

are the most common type of hydronic heating, most

of this section will explain how to inspect them.

STEAM SYSTEMS

A steam boiler is readily distinguishable from a hot

water boiler by the presence of a sight glass, or a level gauge, which shows the water level inside the boiler.

The upper water edge (or meniscus) should be in the

upper part of the sight glass when the boiler is cold

and in the lower half when the system is produc-

ing steam. If the gauge is empty, there’s not enough

water in the boiler; if the gauge is completely full,

there’s too much water in the system.

Steam systems typically have an automatic water

valve (float valve) that replenishes boiler water when

Old-style hot water boilers like this were often

originally coal or oil fired, and many have since been

it drops below a preset level. (The sight glass reveals

converted to natural gas. Typically gravity fed, they

that the float valve is working.) If the water drops

operate very quietly but are relatively inefficient com-

below the safe level, a low-water cutoff will shut off

pared to systems with circulating pumps.

fuel to the burner.

reheated. Though we will briefly discuss inspecting

steam systems, they are increasingly rare and have

not been installed in new construction for decades.

Though steam systems are reliable, they are not very

energy-efficient and their heat is slow to arrive. Two-

pipe steam systems have a second pipe for the return

water or condensate, but that change only modestly

improved performance.

Gravity hot water systems followed steam. This

system’s pipes are filled with water, which expands

as it is heated in a boiler, rises to radiators, where it displaces cooler water, which returns to the boiler to

be reheated. That is, the water in this system circu-

lates on its own, without mechanical devices such as

pumps. Gravity hot water is also considered an out-

dated technology. Like steam, it requires 3-in. pipes,

is slow to heat, and is not very energy-efficient.

The sight glass of this steam boiler will tell you if the float valve (automatic water fill valve) is functioning

Forced–hot water heating systems use circulating

properly. Old steam boilers with chronic leaks should

pumps to deliver hot water to radiators and return

be replaced.

H E A T I N G A N D C O O L I N G S Y S T E M S 197

The pressure control (pressuretrol) valve is usu-

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

ally set to restart the boiler when pressure drops to

■

■

What kind of hydronic system does the house

between 0.5 psi and 1 psi. To check the pressure valve,

have? Try to determine the age of the unit, re-

run the system through a heating cycle or adjust the

searching information on the boiler nameplate if

set point to a lower temperature to see if the burner

necessary.

turns off. If the burner fails to shut down, the valve is

■

■

If the boiler has a sight glass, which shows the

defective—a potentially hazardous condition.

water level inside, it is a steam system.

When the system is full, the steam pressure in-

■

■

If the sight glass is empty, there’s not enough

creases until it reaches the set point, usually between

water in the boiler and the automatic water

valve is probably not functioning and should

2 psi and 3 psi. Low-pressure steam systems should

be replaced.

never exceed 5 psi. There should be a pressure-relief

■

■

Check the pressure control valve by running

valve to discharge excessive pressure should the other

the system through a heating cycle to see if the

regulators fail. Relief valves are typically set between

burner turns off.

12 psi and 15 psi. A leaking safety release valve is an

■

■

Is there a pressure-relief valve mounted on the

indication of system or control malfunction.

boiler? Is there water below the relief valve’s

Some systems have a combination pressuretrol/

discharge pipe? (Relief valves should not be dis-

charging, so if it is, have it checked.)

pressure-relief valve, which will trip if a high pressure

■

■

level is exceeded. The boiler will not fire until a ser-

Does the heating system short cycle (start and

stop on very short intervals)? If so, the expansion

vice person or a homeowner pushes the valve’s reset

tank may be waterlogged.

button. In addition to making sure gauges and valves

work, an inspector should survey control equipment

FORCED–HOT WATER SYSTEMS

for corrosion and damage.

When inspecting a forced–hot water system, start with

Banging radiator noise is usually caused by steam

the big stuff: the condition of the boiler. Whereas

blocked by water ponding in the pipes. Shimming

older boilers were made of cast iron and lasted

the radiator to slope downward toward the inlet pipe

decades, newer steel boilers typically have 20-year

usually drains the water and stops the noise.

warranties and are lucky to make it to 25 years. The

GRAVITY HOT WATER SYSTEMS

repeated expansion and contraction as boilers heat

In gravity hot water systems, there is no circulating

and cool leads to corrosion, splits, and leaks.

pump. Water heated by the boiler rises to radiators by

Water dripping into the firebox is an early sign

convection and returns by gravity, so these systems

of boiler failure and should be checked by an HVAC

are quite simple. Because gravity-fed hot water sys-

contractor. If you see rusted metal and water pool-

tems are older, their boilers were often cast-iron or

ing around the base of the boiler housing, the boiler

heavy-gauge steel and extremely durable. Inspectors

is almost certainly shot and needs to be replaced.

report finding 50-year old boilers that still work fine.

Extensive leaks on a relatively new boiler in the Snow

All gravity hot water systems use an expansion

Belt may have been caused by frozen water piping

tank located in the attic. Such tanks can become

due to a fuel line that got clogged or a fuel tank that

waterlogged and should be checked annually as part

didn’t get refilled. Once the burst pipes are repaired,

of routine servicing. The most common symptom of

the system should function normally.

a waterlogged expansion tank is a system that short

WATER PRESSURE. Forced–hot water systems

cycles, or turns on and off in very short intervals.

typically operate at pressures between 12 psi and

Gravity hot water systems should also have a relief

25 psi, so the unit’s pressure gauge should read

valve mounted on the boiler.

somewhere in that range. When the pressure drops

198 HEATING AND COOLING SYSTEMS

EXPANSION TANKS

Water expands when it is heated, so all

closed (self-contained) hydronic systems need an

expansion tank to store the additional volume of water

that has been heated. As water flows in and out of

the tank as it is heated and cooled, equilibrium in the

system is maintained. Without an expansion tank to

relieve the additional pressure (and volume) of heated

water, heating system pipes could rupture.

In forced–hot water systems the expansion tank is

usually near the boiler. There are two types of expan-

sion tanks: air cushion and diaphragm. Because water

cannot be compressed but air can, the air serves as a

cushion that compresses as water enters and expands

as water leaves. In time, however, air-cushion tanks

become waterlogged so that when a boiler heats

water, there is no room for its increased volume in

the expansion tank and the relief valve blows. Water-

logged expansion tanks must be flushed periodically

so the air cushion can be reestablished.

Diaphragm expansion tanks have flexible diaphragms

(rubberized membranes) that isolate the air in the tank

so it can’t become waterlogged. Diaphragms work well,

but in time may wear out or become less flexible or,

This is a gas-fired, hydronic hot water boiler that has

at least two zones, each with a separate pump to

more commonly, the tank will rust out first.

distribute hot water to different portions of the house.

There may also be multiple thermostats located in the

heated areas.

below 12 psi, an automatic water-fill valve lets water in.

Altitude is the internal boiler pressure indicated by

If system pressure exceeds 25 psi, a pressure-relief

a pressure/temperature gauge mounted on the boiler.

valve should open to let water out. The boiler also has

The red needle in the gauge is typically fixed at

a pressure-relief regulator to drain water at the high

30 psi, the maximum safe pressure. Burners should

pressure limit, typically 30 psi; this is a safety device shut off if the boiler pressure exceeds 30 psi. Exces-and should not activate during normal operation.

sive boiler pressure may be caused by a stuck fill

Any condition that causes a relief valve to discharge

valve, a leak in a domestic hot water exchanger coil,

is serious: It must be identified by an HVAC specialist

a ruptured expansion tank diaphragm, or a water-

and corrected.

logged expansion tank.

WATER TEMPERATURE. The boiler water

OPERATING NOISES. Water movement in the

temperature is measured by an aquastat, which turns

piping and boiler should be silent. Noise typically

the fuel to the burners on or off, depending on the

indicates that air has entered the system as a result

temperature setting. The normal operating tempera-

of turbulence, defective valves, or leaking fittings.

ture is 175° to 185°F. Temperatures above 190°F may

However, some squeaking is normal when the unit

indicate insufficient radiators, an undersize boiler, or

turns on and water pipes expand.

improperly adjusted controls.

H E A T I N G A N D C O O L I N G S Y S T E M S 199

CIRCULATING PUMPS move water to radiators

room’s use. Each zone can have its own circulating

and distribution pipes. Ideally, the circulator should

pump or a single pump can serve the whole system.

be installed on the distribution return pipe just be-

When the temperature in a zone drops to the lower

fore it connects to the boiler. Older circulators need

setpoint, the thermostat opens the zone valve, the

to be oiled regularly.

boiler fires up, and the pump moves hot water to

Because pumps are the most actively moving part

the zone. If there’s a single circulating pump and the

of the system, they wear out, particularly at the coupler boiler is on, signals from other zone thermostats sim-between the pump and its motor. When that happens,

ply open their respective valves to admit heated water.

the motor turns but the pump doesn’t, so heated water

When inspecting zoned heating systems, examine

won’t circulate. Feel a distribution pipe to see if a pump each zone valve for leaks and mineral buildup, which

is working: the pipe should heat up quickly. Further,

can cause valves to stick open or shut. Leaking valves

you can check for leaks around the pump, usually

should be replaced.

caused by a failed gasket between pump and motor.

RADIANT HEATING SYSTEMS, in which heat

Pumps or motors that whine or clank are inade-

piping is encased in a concrete slab that acts as a

quately lubricated or perhaps have worn bearings that

radiator, are almost always divided into multiple

need replacing. If you smell smoke or burning rubber

zones, each with a separate thermostat and zone

when a pump is operating, shut down the system and

control valve. Radiant heating is reliable, but inspec-

have an HVAC contractor inspect and repair it.

tors should have piping pressure tested if the house is

HEATING ZONES. For greater efficiency, forced–

about to be sold. Houses from the 1950s through the

hot water systems can be divided into zones, each

1970s with radiant heating typically employed copper

with its own thermostat and zone control valve. This

tubing in the slabs, which could be compromised by

enables temperatures that are appropriate to each

improperly poured slabs that have shifted or cracked.

Many older systems used steel piping, much of which

has rusted out by now. Frequently, modern in-slab

systems use PEX or other plastic tubing. Always try to

identify the type of in-slab piping. Replacing a radiant

system is a big expense, so it’s best to know about it

beforehand.

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

■

■

What is the age and general condition of the

boiler? Use the information on the boiler

nameplate to research the manufacturer and

boiler model.

■

■

Water dripping into a firebox is an early sign of

boiler failure. Is the bottom of the boiler rusty

and is there water leaking around the base? If so,

it’s probably time to replace it.

■

■

Read the boiler pressure gauge: 12 psi to 25 psi

is a normal range. If the pressure drops below

This radiant heating system has two pumps—one for

12 psi, an automatic water-fill valve should open.

each heating zone—to circulate hot water through

■

■

Is a pressure-relief valve mounted to the boiler?

piping in slab floors. As the pumps run, listen for

unusual sounds.

If there is water beneath the relief valve discharge

pipe, have an HVAC specialist inspect the boiler.

200 HEATING AND COOLING SYSTEMS

■■ The boiler altitude gauge is typically fixed at

30 psi, the maximum safe pressure. Burners

should shut off if the boiler pressure exceeds

30 psi.

■■ Does the water circulate quietly in boilers and

piping? Noisy operation is usually caused by air

in the system, defective valves, or leaking fittings.

■■ Does the pump motor turn but pipes don’t heat

up? If so, a gasket has probably failed. Frequently,

there will also be a leak below the pump.

■■ Pumps or motors that whine or bang are insuffi-

ciently lubricated or have a bad bearing.

Electric receptacles should not be located above

■■ If the house had radiant heating installed before

baseboard heaters because appliance cord insulation

the 1970s, have piping pressure tested to check

will become brittle. Avoid placing furniture in front of

for leaks.

baseboard heaters; it denies access to controls and

blocks air flow.

Room Heaters

Room heaters, such as baseboard units, floor and

wall furnaces, and direct-vent wall units, are usually

electric or gas-fired and heat only the rooms in which

they are installed.

ELECTRIC ROOM HEATERS

Stationary electric heaters include baseboard heaters

and wall panels. Electric heat is a popular retrofit

option for many homeowners because heaters are

relatively inexpensive and easy to install. Long term,

Older electric heaters common in bathrooms have ex-

they can be a costly solution because electric heat

posed heating elements that are fire and burn hazards.

tends to cost more than gas- or oil-fired systems.

Such heaters should be disconnected and/or replaced.

Baseboard heaters with integral thermostats are

perhaps the easiest to install because they don’t

require a separate switch leg to a thermostat higher

electric heaters, so it may be necessary to upgrade

on the wall. Their shortcoming is that a thermostat

either the main electrical capacity or the heating

near the floor doesn’t give an accurate read of ambi-

system.

ent room temperature.

Electric wall heaters are surface mounted or re-

FLOOR FURNACES

cessed into a wall, with a fan to project heat out into

Floor furnaces, common in older homes in moderate

the room. Older exposed electric-coil wall heaters

climates, are typically gas fired. Examine furnaces

can burn someone or become fire hazards, especially

above and below the floor. Their vent connectors

in bathrooms where towels are sometimes left to

often have insufficient clearance, upslope, or vertical

hang in front of them.

length and should be checked carefully for rust and

Portable electric heaters are sometimes used in

corrosion. The draft hood (draft diverter) between

unheated rooms. A 30-amp or 60-amp main electri-

the vent and the furnace is often damaged. When the

cal service may not be adequate to support multiple

furnace is not venting properly, there will be a lot of

H E A T I N G A N D C O O L I N G S Y S T E M S 201

Floor furnaces are hazardous and are not permitted in

Stains and rusting at the top of wall furnace covers

some areas. Their hot surfaces can burn bare feet in an

are usually caused by flue-gas spillage, in which moist

instant, and their heat exchangers can scorch nearby

flue gases don’t exit the flue pipe, usually because it is wood framing.

too short.

moist air and window condensation during winter

combustibles must be kept away from these units.

because water vapor–laden combustion gases are

It is important to keep wall furnaces clear of dust to

escaping into living spaces.

provide adequate combustion airflow. Inspectors

Check floor framing for charred or burned wood.

should remove the cover on wall furnaces to inspect

Because floor furnace grilles get very hot, they can

heat exchangers and vent hoods.

burn anyone who comes in contact with them, espe-

Wall furnaces typically vent vertically through

cially children. It is best to replace an old or damaged

the roof using an oval-shaped Type BW vent or flue.

floor furnace with central heating.

A gas-fired appliance vent should extend at least

There should be an access opening large enough

2 ft. above the roof and at least 2 ft. higher than any

to remove the floor furnace: minimally, 30 in. by

portion of the building within 8 ft. When vents are

30 in. The furnace burner opening should not be far-

too short above flat roofs, draft will be poor and wall

ther than 20 ft. from the access door. Floor furnaces

furnaces are likely to spill fumes from their draft

should be supported on a concrete slab at least 3 in.

hood, leaving smoke or rust stains on the upper part

above the ground or else suspended from the floor

of the furnace cover.

framing with at least 6 in. clearance to ground.

DIRECT-VENT WALL UNITS

If excavation is necessary for suspended floor

Direct-vent wall furnaces have special double vents

furnaces, adequate clearance should be provided

that run through the wall directly behind the unit:

at all sides. If the excavation is deeper than 12 in.,

They vent horizontally. The double vent provides both

a concrete or masonry lining extending 4 in. above

combustion air intake and exhaust discharge. The

the adjoining ground level is required. Always check

end of a gas-fired appliance flue should terminate at

subgrade areas for indications of previous flooding

least 4 ft. below or 4 ft. horizontally from and at least or standing water, which can rust out heating units.

1 ft. above a doorway or operable window.

GAS-FIRED WALL FURNACES

These units are safer than other heaters because

Gas-fired wall furnaces usually use radiation to

they are sealed; there is no direct air connection be-

transfer heat but some have fans, too. Back-to-back

tween the living space and the combustion chamber.

wall furnaces are common between living rooms

They can be installed on almost any outside wall and

and hallways in apartments. Wood doors and other

do not require a vent pipe that extends above the roof.

202 HEATING AND COOLING SYSTEMS

Central Air-Conditioning

Central air-conditioning systems typically use duct-

ing to distribute cooled air to more than one room.

Other systems use piping to distribute chilled water

to the various rooms. Some rooms not connected to

a central system may have individual exterior wall-

mounted A/C units plugged into electrical outlets.

Typically, home air-conditioning is installed in a

split system configuration with the condenser at the

building exterior and the evaporator adjacent to the

interior furnace equipment. Before operating an

Direct vent gas-fired wall heaters get quite hot, so

residents must be careful to avoid placing combustible

air-conditioning system, always be sure that the

furniture and materials too near. The furniture here is

electrical power to the unit has been turned on for

too close to the heater.

at least 24 hours before the inspection. Many air-

conditioners are equipped with electric heaters wired

But the vent caps can create a burn or fire hazard

to the power supply that keep the lubricating oil from

if they are located too close to a walking surface or

absorbing refrigerant and losing its effectiveness.

plantings.

INSPECTING AN A/C SYSTEM

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

The outside ambient temperature should be at least

65°F to operate the equipment. Look for a disconnect

■■ Are there electrical cords, towels, and other

switch that should be visible from the exterior equip-

things hanging in front of electric heaters?

ment. Disconnect the power at the exterior compres-

Note them.

sor unit before turning on the system at the inside

■■ Check floor furnace connectors for rust and cor-

rosion. The draft hood between the vent and the

thermostat. By closing the switch near the condenser,

furnace is frequently rusted through and sending

you can note any unusual vibration or noise that may

combustion gases into living spaces.

occur as the compressor begins operating.

■■ Is there a bad smell when the floor furnace heats

In a short time, the large suction line will feel cold

up? (Floor furnaces collect large amounts of dust

and the small liquid line will feel warm. Do not grab

and pet hair.)

these lines: lightly touch them with your finger-

■■ Is the floor framing scorched or charred near a

tips. The warm air emerging from the condenser

floor furnace? If any vent piping is single-wall

metal, it must be at least 6 in. from combustible

fan should be 20°F to 25°F warmer than the outside

surfaces.

air. Observe the equipment carefully for excessive

■■ Are there smoke or rust stains on the upper part

vibration or noise. Check the piping at the evaporator

of a wall furnace cover? This indicates insufficient

or compressor for any oil stains or drips indicating

draft and flue-gas spillage into living spaces.

refrigerant leakage.

■■ Make sure that direct-vent wall furnaces are not

Some inspectors will use an ammeter to check the

blocked by doors, furniture, and the like.

running load amps (RLAs). The equipment ID plate

■■ Go outside to inspect direct-vent flues, which

will specify the normal RLAs. This rating should

should terminate at least 4 ft. below or 4 ft. hori-

zontally from and at least 1 ft. above a doorway

not be exceeded, and a reading of 60% to 90% is

or operable window.

considered normal. A defective compressor or low

refrigerant will create a low reading. A low current

draw of the RLAs will usually correspond to a smaller

H E A T I N G A N D C O O L I N G S Y S T E M S 203

An important function of air-conditioning is de-

humidifying. Cooler air holds less moisture. Air that

has reached its maximum moisture content at a given

temperature has a relative humidity of 100%, or has

reached the dew point. The normal relative humidity at

a room interior at 70°F is between 20% and 40%.

CONDENSATE PIPING

Air-cooling coils and evaporative coolers should be

Exterior A/C coils eventually deteriorate. Especially

provided with condensate piping that is not smaller

when exposed to salt air. This coil probably cannot be

saved and will likely need to be replaced.

than 3⁄4 in. in diameter and installed with a slope of

1⁄4 in. per foot, which discharges to an approved

plumbing fixture or disposal area. Condensate may

temperature differential at the evaporator. A reading

be discharged into a laundry tub or plumbing stand-

higher than 90% of the RLAs may indicate a defective

pipe if a proper air break is maintained. Condensate

compressor or a refrigerant overcharge.

drain lines should not be connected directly to waste

Check for adequate clearance at the sides and top

or vent piping.

of the equipment. Follow installation instructions for

Note the location of the condensate drain outflow.

clearance—typically, 12 in. at sides and 4 ft. to 5 ft.

Substantial cold air emerging from the condensate

above the unit for air flow. Note the general condition

drain line may indicate the absence of a trap in the

of the exterior equipment. The condenser should be

condensate drain piping. A trap is suggested to

on a level platform at least 4 in. above grade. Vines,

reduce cold air loss. Check the condensate drain pip-

plants, and other vegetation should be cleared away

ing between the interior and exterior equipment for

from the unit. Look for damage in the compressor

sagging or improper sloping.

fins caused by pets or physical contact. Note excessive

If the furnace or evaporator unit is installed in an

plant debris or dirt inside or beneath the unit.

attic or above a finished ceiling, a secondary conden-

Note the condition of the insulation on the refriger-

sate drain line is necessary to prevent potential

ant lines. Frost or ice on the large suction line, or at

leaks should the primary condensate line become

the interior evaporator coils, indicates insufficient air-clogged. The secondary pan should have a separate

3

flow. This condition is possibly caused by a dirty filter,

⁄4-in. minimum drainpipe whose discharge is visible.

dirty evaporator coil, or defective metering device.

Water flowing from this drain indicates that service

In each room, measure the temperature differences

is needed immediately to clear the primary conden-

between the cold air return and the air flowing from

sate drain. Many modern systems are now equipped

the registers while the air-conditioner is operating.

with water sensor alarms attached to the condensate

The difference in temperature should be 14°F to 22°F

overflow drain, or placed in the pan below the unit,

(some inspectors use 15°F and 20°F). If the difference

that will shut down the A/C when water floods the

is too great (the cooled air is too cold), there may be

evaporator coil.

restricted air flow that does not allow the evaporator

If the furnace air-conditioning system is located in

to cool properly. This can result in ice formation in

a basement, a condensate lift pump is typically required

the evaporator coils. A difference of less than 14°F

to deliver the condensate to the building exterior. In

indicates a system that is not working correctly, usu-

rooftop installations the condensate drain piping

ally because of compressor malfunction or insuffi-

should be directed to a downspout opening. Histori-

cient refrigerant.

cally, PVC piping was not to be used for condensate

204 HEATING AND COOLING SYSTEMS

Condensate pipes that don’t empty into an approved

drain or outlet can do a lot of damage. This con-

Evaporator coils should be located on the down-flow

densate pipe has dripped onto the stucco siding for

side of the system heat exchanger. Check the ducting

months, causing the siding to detach from the sheath-

next to the evaporator for excessive dampness, rust,

ing and soaking the wall framing.

or frost.

drains in areas exposed to the sun. While copper is a

ANNUAL SERVICING

better material, in recent years much copper piping

If you see signs that the system has not been properly

has been stolen from rooftops and other areas, so

or recently serviced, recommend that a qualified

many users are returning to PVC, which can last for

contractor do a full service soon. Air-conditioning

many years in areas exposed to the sun, especially if

equipment is complicated and can fail if not properly

it is painted.

maintained; it should be serviced at least annually.

A/C DUCTING

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

To detect air leaks, place your hands around pipe fit-

tings and connections at the evaporator and furnace

■

■

Before inspecting an A/C system, be sure that its

power has been on for at least 24 hours and the

equipment while the air-conditioning is operating.

temperature outside is at least 65°F.

(Keep hands away from moving parts, however.) Note

■

■

While the equipment is running, observe it care-

duct damage or separation.

fully for excessive vibration or noise.

Evaporator coils should be located on the down-

■

■

Are there any oil stains or drips indicating refrig-

flow side of the system heat exchanger. Damp air

erant leakage in the piping at the evaporator or

coming off the coils can lead to heat exchanger

compressor?

rusting. Check the ducting next to the evaporator for

■

■

Outside, look for damaged compressor fins,

indications of excessive dampness, rust, or frost.

excessive plant debris, and dirt inside the unit.

Cool air is substantially heavier than warm air. If

■

■

What’s the condition of refrigerant lines? Frost

the older ducting is too small to support the heavier

or ice on the suction lines or interior evaporator

coils indicates insufficient airflow, often because

cool air (4-in. round ducts were once common), they

of a dirty filter.

should be replaced with larger ducts. Check the

■

■

Do air-cooling coils and evaporative coolers have

volume of cold air at the registers. If you suspect that

condensate piping at least 3⁄4 in. dia. with a slope

the A/C system has been added to an existing heating

of 1⁄4 in. per foot? Where does the condensate

system without upgrading the blower or duct capac-

line discharge?

ity, have an HVAC contractor assess the system.

■

■

If the furnace or evaporator unit is installed in an

attic, is there a metal pan beneath it and a sec-

ondary condensate line to prevent leaks?

H E A T I N G A N D C O O L I N G S Y S T E M S 205

■■ Is there a water sensor alarm at the A/C conden-

INSPECTING A HEAT-PUMP SYSTEM

sate overflow or in the pan beneath the unit?

To inspect a heat-pump system, use the thermostat

■■ If the furnace A/C system is located in a base-

control only. Operate the system only in the mode it is

ment, is there a condensate lift pump? Rust

set at when you first see it. Do not change to heating

stains and dampness at the furnace or below the

or cooling mode as this could damage the system. The

cooling coil suggest there is not one.

system should be energized for at least 24 hours before

■■ Has the A/C system been recently serviced?

you operate it. This allows the sump heater to heat the

lubricant to an effective temperature. Do not operate a

Heat Pumps

system that has been turned off at a breaker or fuse.

Simply put, a heat pump is like an air conditioner that

Do not run the unit in the heating mode when the

extracts heat from exterior air and moves it inside or

temperature is over 65°F or in the cooling mode when it

extracts heat from inside air and transfers it to the

is less than 60°F. If it operates in one mode, it will also outside. Basically, there are two types of heat pumps:

operate in the other mode unless the reversing valve is

air to air and water to air (or geothermal). Air-to-

defective, and these are relatively inexpensive to repair.

air types are most commonly installed in homes.

In the cooling mode, the discharge air from the

Geothermal heat pumps, which rely on the constant

outside compressor should be 14°F to 22°F warmer than

temperature (55°F) of well water, are more efficient

the ambient air. The discharge air from the air registers and more expensive.

should be 14°F to 22°F cooler than the air at the return

The main difference between a heat pump and an

duct. The large suction line should be cold to the touch.

air conditioner is a reversing valve that changes the

In the heating mode the discharge air from the out-

direction of the refrigerant’s flow. A heat pump also

side coil is cooler than the ambient air, the air at the

has an accumulator to keep liquid refrigerant from

registers should be between 90°F and 105°F, and

entering the compressor. Metering devices, also

the suction line should be warm to the touch. Hotter

found in A/C systems, control the amount of refriger-

air at the registers will indicate that the unit is operat-ant that flows to the coils to absorb heat.

ing on supplemental heat.

If the system fails to provide heat, an emergency

Home inspectors don’t usually assess the adequacy of

backup may be operated manually to activate the

heating and cooling systems. Heat pumps are typically

supplemental heating system.

sized for the cooling load. If heat-pump capacity is too

large, the unit will short cycle and not remove enough

humidity to prevent condensation indoors during the

summer. If its capacity is too small the house will be

cold in winter and too warm in summer.

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

■

■

When inspecting a heat-pump system, operate it

only in the mode in which it is set. Changing its

mode immediately before testing could damage it.

■

■

Outside, make sure there are no branches within

5 ft. of the unit or bushes within 1 ft.

Outside condensers should be mounted on a level pad

■

■

In heating mode, the air at registers should be

well above the ground, unlike what is shown here. In

between 90°F and 105°F.

heat pump systems this equipment is typically referred

■

■

to as the “outside unit,” which operates as a condenser

In cooling mode, discharge air at the registers

only in the cooling mode.

should be 14°F to 22°F warmer than the return air.

206 HEATING AND COOLING SYSTEMS

CHAPTER 9

CHIMNEYS and

FIREPLACES

BRICK CHIMNEYS AND FIREPLACES are romantic hold-

overs from a time when they were often the only way to

heat a house or get hot gases safely out of it. These days fireplaces are not particularly cost-effective to build or energy-efficient to operate. But if a house already has a brick chimney and fireplace in decent repair, then we try to live with their shortcomings.

Chimneys

Chimneys are inspected in several stages, the first

being part of the roof inspection and the exterior

CHIMNEYS, FLUES, AND VENTS

walk-around, then, later, in the basement or crawl

space where the chimney footing rests, and perhaps

A chimney is a hollow, freestanding

in intervening floors if there is a fireplace or wood-

column constructed of brick, rock, or block and

stove venting into it.

mortar. A flue is a liner inside a chimney, typically of

clay tile or metal, which vents combustion gases from

At each stage, the inspector’s concerns may be a

a fireplace, woodstove, or heating appliance to the

little different. On the roof, the primary concern is

outside. Because combustion gases are frequently

how skillfully the chimney is flashed into the roof-

very hot, a flue liner must be continuous—airtight and

ing membrane—in other words, how leak-free and

unbroken—from the heat source to the outside air.

The term vent is often used for pipes carrying exhaust weather-tight junctures are. Exterior inspections

from furnaces or appliances. The terms flue and vent focus on the chimney’s mortar joints and structural

are often used interchangeably.

soundness. The basement look-see typically focuses

on the chimney pad (footing), on settlement (if any),

and on structure. If there’s a fireplace, the flue and

firebox safety are big issues. We’ll discuss each of

these topics at length.

STRUCTURAL CONDITION

A WELL-CONSTRUCTED

CHIMNEY

The visual regularity of brick chimneys, with alter-

nating patterns of brick and mortar, makes irregular-

ities easy to spot. An inspector’s first task is to scan

Concrete or

High-temperature

mortar cap

silicone sealant

exposed portions of brickwork and note missing

bricks, eroded mortar, obviously patched areas,

cracked caps, and the like.

Masonry chimneys are usually freestanding—that

is, they are supported by a footing that is independent

of the house foundation. Consequently, if the footing

and the foundation settle at different rates, gaps may

develop between the chimney and, say, house sid-

ing. Uneven settlement is not necessarily a problem,

though gaps should be sealed with a durable caulk to

keep water from entering behind the siding. Elas-

tomeric caulks are a good choice because they stay

flexible and accommodate seasonal expansion and

contraction of materials.

If the footing is failing, however, the chimney

Flue

may begin to lean, which is serious. Severe lean-

(tile liner)

ing is often accompanied by cracking along mortar

Minimum

lines and, in some cases, cracks that run across brick

1-in. air space

faces. Chimney-siding gaps with several applica-

tions of caulk indicate longstanding settlement that

208 CHIMNEYS AND FIREPLACES

Chimneys are usually supported by a footing that is

Heavy-duty bracing like this can help stabilize a ma-

independent of the house foundation. When uneven

sonry chimney, but complete removal and/or replace-

settlement occurs, a gap like the one here can open

ment with a metal flue is likely to be much safer.

between the chimney and the house.

may be growing worse. Undersize chimney pads in

need to be repointed by partially cutting back joints,

older houses may lack reinforcing steel or be made

applying new mortar into the joints, and shaping

of inferior concrete that is now crumbling. If visible

the new mortar. Shaping mortar joints is especially

deterioration is widespread, the chimney should be

important in regions with freezing temperatures

replaced because exterior cracking is almost always

because shaping compresses the mortar, helps it shed

accompanied by flue-tile cracking, which is a fire

water, and improves its weatherability.

hazard.

Brickwork in direct contact with the ground

Bracing is sometimes prescribed as a cure for

frequently has damaged mortar joints because sus-

leaning chimneys, especially in earthquake-prone

tained dampness leeches out minerals and weakens

regions, but it may be ill-advised. Bracing may limit

the cement. Efflorescence, a powdery white mineral

the amount of sway above a roof but will do nothing

surface deposit, is also caused by masonry absorbing

to alleviate racking (twisting) forces on a rigid, rather water, but its presence does not necessarily mean the

fragile masonry structure. Bracing certainly won’t

structure is failing. A lot of efflorescence near the top remedy inadequate footings or weak mortar joints.

of an old chimney is noteworthy because it suggests

that water has been running down the inside of the

MORTAR JOINTS

chimney for many years, usually because a chimney’s

Even materials as durable as brick and mortar break

mortar cap (discussed later) has failed.

down in time, frequently near the top of a wall or

If vertical or diagonal cracks run through several

chimney, where masonry is most exposed to the

courses, there may be underlying structural prob-

elements or near the ground where water wicks up

lems, which must be corrected before repointing.

from dampness in area soils. Often, the chimney

When they can safely access the roof, inspectors

wasn’t capped or flashed correctly. Loose bricks at

sometimes give a chimney a gentle push to check for

the top of a chimney will have to be removed until

looseness; you can do the same to chimney sections

the repairer reaches bricks that are solidly attached,

next to the ground. Take it easy: the point is not to

usually at the roofline.

push it over, but to assess its condition. Any chimney

If brick courses or mortar joints are eroded but

that does move, however imperceptibly, should be

bricks remain firmly attached, the mortar joints will

replaced. A final test of mortar joints is scraping

C H I M N E Y S A N D F I R E P L A C E S 209

fireplace proportions, negative pressurization in

airtight houses, prevailing winds, and topography,

many of which a homeowner can do little or nothing

about. Chimney height, though, is one variable that

strongly affects draft and is somewhat remediable.

Old-timers hold that the top of a chimney should

be higher than the roof ridge to prevent downdrafts,

but that’s not always practicable. Most building codes

specify that the top of a chimney must be at least

3 ft. above the roof on the chimney’s upslope face. In

addition, the top of the chimney must be at least 2 ft.

higher than any other part of the roof within 10 ft.,

Sustained contact with moist soil has hastened the

erosion of this chimney’s mortar joints. It may be pos-

measured horizontally. If the chimney is a little shy

sible to replace loose bricks and repoint tired mortar,

of those heights, adding a concrete cap or a rotat-

but it needs to be done soon.

ing wind cap usually gains 8 in. to 12 in. and can use

prevailing breezes to help venting.

them gently with a screwdriver. If the mortar is

MORTAR CAPS, RAIN CAPS,

sandy, crumbling, or easily dislodged, the chimney

AND SPARK ARRESTORS

should probably be removed.

Speaking of caps, mortar is typically applied at the

top of masonry chimneys as a transition between

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

the flue liner and the surrounding brickwork (see “A

■■ Scan the chimney for missing bricks, eroded

Well-Constructed Chimney” on p. 208). The mortar mortar joints, and obvious patches.

cap is designed to shed rain and prevent water entry

■■ Are there gaps between the chimney and house

into the brickwork at the top. Cracks often form in

siding? Have the gaps been caulked before?

this mortar and should be caulked or patched

■■ Does the chimney lean? Has rooftop chimney

with mortar. Loose or damaged mortar should be

bracing been installed?

■■

replaced.

Is there cracking along mortar lines or cracks

that run across brick faces?

■■ Can you see loose bricks or a cracked mortar

cap atop the chimney?

■■ What is the condition of mortar joints? Scrape

joints gently with a screwdriver to see if they

SEPARATE VENTS FOR

are sound or crumbling.

FIREPLACE AND FURNACE!

■■ If chimney surfaces show efflorescence, how

widespread is it?

Do not vent a fireplace and a

■■ If the chimney is accessible, gently push test it for loose bricks or sway.

furnace (or any heating appliance) into the

same chimney flue. Carbon monoxide from

the furnace could enter living spaces from

CHIMNEY HEIGHT AND DRAFT

the fireplace or the furnace vent draft could

Chimney draft affects how well heating appliances

be compromised. A furnace should vent to a

vent flue gases or whether a fireplace smokes. How-

separate flue.

ever, creating a chimney with a strong draft is an

inexact science of variables, such as chimney volume,

210 CHIMNEYS AND FIREPLACES

A mortar or concrete cap on a chimney helps pre-

Modern metal chimney caps often have two screens:

vent rainwater from entering the brickwork. In snow

one that keeps any sparks inside and a lower one that

country such caps are typically much larger and can be

keeps rooftop creatures out of the wood framed chim-

effective in keeping the melting snow away from the

ney enclosure below.

bricks below. This cracked cap should be replaced.

In areas that get heavy winter rains or snow,

homeowners often install a peaked rain cap (wash

STRESS AT THE TOP

cap) above the mortar cap to keep creosote and other

combustion residue from running down the inside of

This old brick chimney has four strikes

the flue liner. If there is enough water washing down

against it: crumbling mortar, failed base flashing,

the inside of a flue, creosote can run all the way down

no flue lining, and a wind-buffeted TV antenna that

to metal flue pipes, where it leaks out of joints. Sticky stresses mortar joints further. Strapping antennae,

satellite dishes, and other paraphernalia to chimneys

and black-brown, creosote is unsightly, smells awful,

is a terrible idea.

and is a fire hazard.

Local codes may require that the chimneys venting

woodstoves or fireplaces have a tight-fitting spark

arrestor on top. This requirement is common in fire

zones, to prevent airborne embers from starting

brush or forest fires. Local codes will specify the size

of the arrestor’s screen mesh, though the mesh is typi-

cally 19-gauge galvanized wire with openings between

3⁄8 in. and 1⁄2 in. Screen mesh must be small enough to

stop sparks, yet large enough for unimpeded airflow

and draft. As a bonus, screened spark arrestors keep

critters from entering or nesting in a chimney.

NOTE : Most home centers sell combination rain

cap/spark arrestors.

If the flue damper inside the fireplace is damaged

(see p. 215), you may see a spring-loaded damper mounted to the top of the chimney. Most chimney-top dampers are opened and closed by pulling a

stainless-steel cable that hangs down the flue into the

C H I M N E Y S A N D F I R E P L A C E S 211

fireplace. As part of your fireplace inspection, pull

Because such gases are very hot (450°F to 500°F from

the cable open and shut to make sure the damper is

conventional gas furnaces), a flue liner must be

working.

continuous and airtight, from the heat source to the

outside air. Simply put, the purpose of a flue liner is

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

to contain a potential chimney fire.

Modern brick or concrete block chimneys are lined

■■ Check the height of the chimney. It should be

with clay tile or concrete sections that are mortared

at least 3 ft. above the part of the roof it passes

through and at least 2 ft. above any other part

together. Liners and the mortar that joins them will

of the roof within 10 ft.

eventually deteriorate with age and use, reducing

■■ Do the fireplace and furnace (or any heating

their effectiveness. Chimney fires can reach 2000°F,

appliance) vent to separate flues?

and if mortar joints are not intact, those superheated

■■ Are cracks visible in the mortar cap? Does the

gases can escape from the flue liner (“breech the

chimney have a rain cap?

chimney”) and set fire to wood framing.

■■ Does the chimney have a spark arrester?

PRE–WORLD WAR II CHIMNEYS ARE OFTEN

■■ If the fireplace damper doesn’t function, is there

UNLINED. Unlined chimneys should not be used for

a spring-loaded damper atop the chimney?

venting fireplaces or furnaces even if the masonry

■■ If a TV antenna, satellite dish, or other object

seems structurally sound. Even a small crack can

is strapped to the chimney, write it up and rec-

allow superheated gases to escape and ignite wood

ommend removal.

framing. Moreover, given the corrosiveness of com-

bustion gases, it’s unlikely that an old chimney will

FLUE LINERS

be 100% intact. It may be possible to retrofit a metal

To restate an important point: a flue is a liner inside

flue liner or to pour a cementitious one (by first

a chimney that vents combustion gases from a fire-

inflating a balloon-like form inside the chimney),

place, woodstove, or heating appliance to the outside.

but retrofits are expensive. If a metal flue liner has

been inserted into a masonry chimney, examine the

metal for corrosion and rust.

Flue liners are not typically accessible to visual

examination, beyond a short section you can see

down the top of a chimney or up from a fireplace.

Some chimney contractors will lower a video camera

down the length of a chimney, which could probably

detect large cracks or sections of failed mortar but

more likely all one would see is a more or less con-

tinuous surface of dull black or shiny black buildup.

Better to spend the money on an annual chimney

cleaning.

It’s impossible to overstate the importance of clean-

ing a chimney before each heating season. In addition

to creosote, which may harden to the consistency of

Sometimes an inspector can actually look down inside

a fireplace chimney or furnace flue and discover that

glass, incomplete combustion produces tar, am-

it was never properly lined. Unlined flues like this are

monia, methane, carbon monoxide, toluene, phenol,

a fire hazard and could also allow flue gases to escape

benzene, and eventually, turpentine, acetone, and

into living spaces. The best solution is to add a metal

liner or completely replace the chimney.

methyl alcohol. All, need we add, quite flammable.

212 CHIMNEYS AND FIREPLACES

Counterflashing and base pieces overlap but aren’t

physically joined, so they can move independently

and still repel water. (This independence is neces-

sary because house foundations and chimney

footings often settle at different rates, causing

single-piece flashing to tear and leak.)

Diverting water around the upslope side of the

chimney is particularly tricky, so if the chimney is

more than 2 ft. wide, a cricket is sometimes installed.

Crickets look somewhat like a tiny roof with two

sloping planes. The upper flanges of a cricket are

This flue and mortar cap were cracked by a chimney

fire in a flue that was overdue for a cleaning.

overlapped by shingles above. The guiding principle

of flashing is that upper overlaps lower so that water

flows downhill unimpeded, till it is carried away by

If you see signs of a chimney fire, the chimney

gutters and downspouts.

should be professionally inspected. Those signs

As you can see, flashing can get complicated, so it

include creosote flakes on the roof or the ground,

is often done incorrectly and leaks occur or materials

scorched or cracked flue liners or chimney crowns,

wear out. If you can get close enough to inspect the

warped dampers, or charred studs or joists near a

base of the chimney at the roof, see if counter-

chimney. Many local codes require inspections before

flashing is tucked tightly into chimney mortar joints

homeowners fire up new wood-burning appliances.

and if base flashing is free from nail holes and rust

damage. Once leaks develop, many homeowners

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

slather asphalt roofing cement around the base of

■■ Has the chimney been professionally cleaned

the chimney, as shown in the bottom photo on p. 69.

in the past year?

Roofing cement patches are unsightly but generally

■■ Does the chimney have a tile flue liner? Are

effective, though they need to be touched up periodi-

visible parts of the liner in good condition?

cally when the cement dries up and cracks.

■■ If the flue is metal, is it in good condition or

rusted through?

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

■■ If the chimney is unlined, what is its general

condition? Is its construction in solid enough

■

■

Is roofing cement smeared around the base of

condition to retrofit a flue liner?

the chimney? If so, look for corresponding

water damage when you inspect the attic and

■■ Are there signs of previous chimney fires, such

as creosote flakes on the roof or ground, or

upper floors.

scorched or cracked flue liners?

■

■

Is the chimney correctly flashed with counter-

flashing or do single flashing pieces attach to

CHIMNEY FLASHING AND CRICKETS

both chimney and roof deck (incorrect)?

Because chimneys have the potential to dam up

■

■

Is base flashing free from nail holes and rust

holes that could leak? Is counterflashing securely

water running down a sloping roof, chimney–roof

tucked into mortar joints?

joints must be counterflashed to prevent leaks. The

■

■

Was a cricket installed above the chimney (on

upper pieces of counterflashing (see “Chimney

the upslope side of the roof) to divert runoff?

Flashing” on p. 70) are usually tucked into chimney

■

■

Do pieces of flashing and shingles overlap roof-

mortar joints and made to overhang various pieces

ing elements downhill?

of base flashing, which are nailed to the roof deck.

C H I M N E Y S A N D F I R E P L A C E S 213

TRADITIONAL FIREPLACE

CROSS SECTION

Parge corbeled

bricks to

protect mortar

and facilitate

cleaning.

Flue

Hinged

damper

Smoke shelf

(mortar)

Smoke stains above a fireplace may indicate a chimney

Throat

Rubble brick

with a poor draft or that someone left the damper

and fill

closed when a fire was burning.

Firebricks

line firebox.

Back wall

of chimney

bricks? Is the hearth intact? Is the chimney lined?

You might want to don coveralls for this part of the

inspection.

SMOKING FIREPLACES, as we’ve noted, can

have complex causes. Apart from the possible fixes

discussed earlier, here are a few more to consider.

Installing a smoke hood, a narrow metal strip

across the top of a fireplace opening, may be help-

Fireplaces

ful when a fire first starts and is smokiest. But if

Fireplaces need maintenance and occasional repairs,

the chimney draft is poor, smoke will leak out from

but as long as the flue and the firebox are intact,

under the hood sooner or later.

repairs tend to be modest and inexpensive. For many

Inserting fireplace doors is another smoke-

homeowners, the bigger question may be the cost

containing strategy that works best when the unit

of having a fireplace, given its energy inefficiency.

has air vents along the bottom to give the fire enough

When a fire is blazing, less than 15% of its heat radi-

combustion air.

ates out into the room and when a fire is starting

Installing convection ducts near the base of

up or dying out, fireplaces are net energy losers as

the firebox improves draft by increasing airflow, but

conditioned air escapes up the chimney.

because it typically involves rebuilding part of the

firebox, it’s an expensive fix.

GENERAL CONDITION

Parging the fireplace throat and smoke shelf

Start by noting the fireplace’s general condition and

to reduce air turbulence and improve draft can be

assessing what elements are present or missing. Are

accomplished in a day or two if the mason is experi-

there smoke stains on the fireplace surround (the

enced. The key to success for this method is clean-

area just outside the firebox)? Is there a damper?

ing sooty inside bricks well enough for the parging

Is the firebox intact or are there gaps and missing

mortar to stick.

214 CHIMNEYS AND FIREPLACES

Creosote is a highly combustible substance that can

Dampers prevent heat loss when a fireplace is not be-

accumulate and eventually cause a chimney fire that

ing used. Old dampers that don’t work can be replaced

could reach 2000°F. Regular cleanings can prevent

with a spring-loaded damper atop the chimney, whose

excess creosote buildup.

pull chain hangs down into the firebox, as shown here.

Burning dry wood. Burning wet or green (unsea-

tion inside the house. Thus when a fireplace damper

soned) firewood creates a steamy, smoky fire whose

is opened, air rushes down the chimney so that smoke low heat output doesn’t create much of an updraft

rises listlessly or even billows back into the room.

and promotes creosote buildup.

Opening a window to admit more air should reduce

Cleaning the fireplace and chimney annually

fireplace smoking somewhat, but if backdrafting

reduces air turbulence and increases safety.

exists, it needs to be investigated as part of a whole-

Rebuilding the firebox with Rumford propor-

house energy audit (see p. 83). Backdrafting also tions is a viable strategy if the firebox needs to

affects the performance of fuel- and gas-fired water

be rebuilt anyhow and the opening is large enough

heaters, furnaces, and boilers and can suck combus-

to accommodate a new firebox that is taller and shal-

tion gases back into living spaces—a dangerous

lower than a standard fireplace. Rumford fireplaces

condition.

smoke less and radiate more heat into living spaces.

When you research Rumford fireplaces on the Inter-

DAMPERS

net, read up on Count Rumford, a contemporary of

When shut, dampers prevent conditioned air from

Benjamin Franklin’s and perhaps as ingenious.

escaping up the chimney or cold air from coming

Despite a number of his inventions that survive to

down it. And, of course, the damper must be opened

this day, Rumford is not much known in the United

when you use a fireplace or the house will fill with

States because he bet on the British and left in a hurry

smoke. So see if the damper works or if there’s one

after his side lost the Revolutionary War.

at all. A damper that sticks can usually be cleaned to

get it operable but if it’s bent or becomes dislodged,

BACKDRAFTING

perhaps the most cost-effective remedy is removing

Another cause of smoking fireplaces, especially in

it and installing a spring-loaded damper atop the

newer, relatively airtight houses, is backdrafting, in

chimney. Typically, the top of a chimney is much

which air being vented by bath fans, kitchen hoods,

more accessible than the narrow brick throat above

and draft-inducing fans creates negative pressuriza-

a fireplace.

C H I M N E Y S A N D F I R E P L A C E S 215

IS THERE A FLUE?

If you see crumbling, missing, or broken firebricks,

While you’re on your knees peering up at the chim-

or missing mortar, the firebox needs to be rebuilt.

ney, use your flashlight to see if the chimney has

The back wall of a firebox often needs rebuilding

a flue liner. Wear eye protection and a dust mask

because it suffers the highest temperatures (reflected

because you’re likely to dislodge soot while position-

heat) and the most physical abuse. Firebrick side-

ing yourself for a better look.

walls can often be left in place. If firebox mortar

You may not see much, beyond a lot of powdery

joints seem thin, that’s normal. It doesn’t take much

black soot, especially if the brick chimney is slightly

refractory mortar to hold firebricks together. In fact,

offset. Happily, soot can be easily brushed out. But

some masons pride themselves on cutting and fitting

if you see shiny black creosote coating the surfaces,

firebricks so exactly that they don’t need mortar.

write it up because thick creosote often indicates that

While examining the firebox, inspect floor bricks

the chimney has not been cleaned regularly, thus

for damage, too. Surprisingly, floor bricks rarely

increasing the chance of a chimney fire.

need replacing. Most fireplaces have andirons or

grates that elevate burning logs and because heat

FIREBOX

rises, floor bricks have a relatively cool time of it. If A firebox is typically a three-walled, freestanding

the floor has a trap door that opens to an ash chute

structure, which is independent of the back wall

and a cleanout below, see if it opens. Also check to

of the chimney, as shown in “Traditional Fireplace

be sure it can be closed easily so hot ashes do not

Cross Section” on p. 214. Thus a firebox can usually escape to the subfloor area or building exterior

be rebuilt without disturbing the chimney mass, if

creating a fire hazard. (Sweeping ashes down chutes

the chimney is sound. Firebricks, which are made of

has fallen out of favor because people forget to clean

special fire clay, are bigger and softer than conven-

them for years.)

tional facing bricks and less likely to expand and con-

tract (or crack) from heat. Yet because they are soft,

FIREPLACE SURROUNDS AND

HEARTH EXTENSIONS

firebricks can be damaged when logs are thrown

Ideally, the surround that runs around a fireplace

against them.

opening and the hearth extension that extends into

the room should be made of noncombustible materi-

als. Surrounds are often made of wood but, per code,

no combustible material is allowed within 6 in. of the

fireplace opening. So surrounds should be tile, stone,

metal, or anything else that won’t burn.

Because embers frequently fly out of fireplaces,

hearth extensions must be a noncombustible mate-

rial to a distance of at least 20 in. and preferably

more. Fine-mesh screens or fire-rated glass doors are

also recommended to contain sparks.

As you inspect surrounds and hearth extensions,

note gaps or cracks through which hot gases or

sparks could pass. Older hearth extensions were

commonly supported by wood framing, which may

be visible in the subarea (below the floor). This con-

If the back wall of a firebox has loose bricks, they should be removed and remortared, and the back wall rebuilt.

struction method was discontinued in the 1950s,

216 CHIMNEYS AND FIREPLACES

NO FLEX CONNECTORS

IN FIREBOXES!

Flexible gas connectors may be easily

damaged by impact or the high heat of burning wood

in a firebox. They may be used only in decorative

fireplaces that have only gas fires. Because decora-

tive fireplaces are sometimes converted back to

wood-burning uses, home inspectors sometimes find

flex connectors where they shouldn’t be. All fireplace

conversions must be code compliant and inspected

by a fireplace specialist before use.

The wood surrounds of this fireplace, being combusti-

NOTE : Where log lighters are permitted within a

ble, violate the fire code. The gap between the firebox

fire pit, only hard gas-supply pipe may be used.

floor and the hearth extension is worrisome because

hot coals could fall into it, possibly igniting subflooring or framing underneath.

but many wood-supported extensions still exist.

of carbon monoxide inside living spaces, local codes

Framing could ignite if hot coals or ashes were

may require that the chimney damper be fixed in the

allowed to spill onto the hearth extension or if

open position.

wood supports extend to the area under the firebox.

UNVENTED GAS FIREPLACES are not allowed

Because removing wood supports could cause the

in many locales, but when allowed, they employ

hearth extension to crack or fall, a qualified fireplace

thermal sensors and oxygen depletion sensors to

contractor should be contacted to determine how

protect inhabitants. These safety devices keep

best to support the hearth extension.

fireplace temperatures from getting too high or shut

off the unit before carbon monoxide levels became

GAS FIREPLACES

too high indoors. There is some controversy around

Gas fireplaces are intended to burn only natural

unvented gas fireplaces so get familiar with local

gas or propane; there are both vented and unvented

requirements.

types. It’s unsafe to burn anything other than gas in

Whether a gas fireplace is vented or unvented,

such a fireplace or to operate it other than as speci-

there should be a carbon monoxide detector installed

fied in the installation manual. This may sound like

in the room.

legal boilerplate, but an inspector should check a

fireplace’s use against those specs, especially venting

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

provisions.

VENTED GAS FIREPLACES are similar to direct-

■

■

Ask the residents if the fireplace smokes. Are

there smoke stains on the fireplace surround?

vent wall furnaces, described on p. 202. Vented gas Has a smoke hood been installed?

fireplaces typically employ concentric vent piping

■

■

Check to see if there is an operable damper.

whose outer pipe draws in outside air for combus-

■

■

Can you see a flue liner when looking up the

tion, while its inner pipe vents combustion gases di-

chimney?

rectly outside or up a chimney. To forestall a buildup

C H I M N E Y S A N D F I R E P L A C E S 217

■■ Does the fireplace and area above it look like it

Wood Stoves

has been cleaned regularly or are some surfaces

The safety issues relevant to wood-burning fireplaces

shiny with built-up creosote?

also pertain to wood stoves. Wood stoves and stove-

■■ Are there crumbling, missing, or broken fire-

pipe should be cleaned at least once a year to keep

bricks, or missing mortar in the firebox?

creosote and other combustion byproducts from ac-

■■ In the floor of the firebox, is there a trap door

cumulating inside the stove, stovepipe, and chimney.

that opens to an ash chute with a cleanout at the

If you see a dark liquid leaking from stovepipe

bottom? Has the chute been emptied recently or

is it clogged with ashes?

joints, that’s liquid creosote, and it’s probably run-

■■ Are fireplace surrounds and the hearth extension

ning out of pipe joints because an installer incorrectly

made of noncombustible materials? Does the

oriented crimped male pipe ends toward the chimney

hearth extension extend out of the fireplace at

thimble rather than the wood stove collar (takeoff).

least 20 in.? Are there cracks or gaps present?

Over time, creosote dries and hardens, becoming a

■■ If you see a gas flex connector in the firebox,

shiny, tarlike substance that is hard to remove and

write it up. It shouldn’t be there.

extremely flammable. When it ignites, a chimney fire

■

■

If there is a gas fireplace, is it vented or unvented?

results that could burn the house down.

■■ Is there a carbon monoxide detector in the room

where the fireplace is located?

STOVE AGE AND EFFICIENCY

Repeated expansion and contraction as a wood stove

heats up and cools down fatigues metal. Heavier cast-

iron wood stoves will last longer than those built of

rolled steel, but even heavier stoves should be

replaced if gaps develop along seams. Above all, a

INSERT STOVES

wood stove must be airtight. So when stove doors no

longer fit tight and seams between panels start to

An insert is a wood-burning stove

separate, it’s time to retire the stove. Gaps could leak

installed inside a fireplace. A common problem with

combustion gases into living spaces.

such installations is the absence of a metal liner inside If a wood stove seems new, remind homeowners

the masonry flue. The colder masonry flue may cause

an accumulation of soot or creosote at the insert

that it should be inspected by a local authority, such

connection, creating a potential fire risk. In a correct

as the building department or fire department, before

installation, a metal flue pipe is installed inside the

it is used. If possible, determine the age of the wood

existing chimney, extending to a termination above

stove. Wood stoves manufactured before 1990 are,

the roof. To achieve this continuity, it is usually neces-on average, one-third less efficient that those built

sary to remove the fireplace damper and portions of

firebox. This also applies to metal stoves installed at

after, when the EPA implemented stricter efficiency

the front of fireplaces. Inserts and stove flues should

requirements.

be checked annually by a qualified chimneysweep or

New stoves are also cleaner. To quote Martin

fireplace contractor.

Holladay of www.greenbuildingadvisor.com:

“EPA-certified stoves are also less polluting than

pre-1990 stoves. The smoke emission limit for an

EPA-certified stove is 7.5 grams of smoke per hour

for non-catalytic stoves and 4.1 grams of smoke per

hour for catalytic stoves. Pre-1990 stoves were much

dirtier; they released between 15 and 30 grams of

smoke per hour.”

218 CHIMNEYS AND FIREPLACES

STOVEPIPE (CONNECTOR ) is the pipe that

connects the wood stove to a metal or a masonry

chimney, so stovepipe lengths should be as short as

possible, typically only 3 ft. or 4 ft. Stovepipe, which

is single walled, is not the same as metal chimney,

which is double walled and fire rated for use as a

chimney. Single-wall stovepipe must be kept at least

18 in. away from combustible surfaces and may not

pass through walls.

Stovepipe must also maintain a minimum 1⁄4 in. in

1 ft. upward slope from the wood stove collar to the

chimney. Any corrosion, rust, or separations in stove-

pipe are unacceptable and unsafe, so note them on

your report. Stovepipe is inexpensive, so it should be

replaced at the first sign of damage or deterioration.

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

Wood stoves may be no closer than 36 in. to unpro-

■

■

Has the wood stove been cleaned annually?

tected combustible surfaces, so this old Franklin stove

■

■

is surrounded by violations, including the basket of

Are there any signs of liquid creosote leaking

burnables leaning against it.

from stovepipe joints or hard creosote buildup

inside the wood stove, stovepipe, or chimney?

■

■

How old is the wood stove? If built before 1990

EPA standards, it is inefficient and possibly

REQUIRED CLEARANCES

unsafe.

A wood stove should be no closer than 36 in. to an

■

■

Measure to ascertain minimum clearances to

unprotected combustible surface, including stud

combustible surfaces.

walls covered with plaster or drywall. By installing

■

■

Is the stovepipe correctly sloped and free from

metal heat shields on the walls behind the stove you

rust, corrosion, and gaps? Does the stovepipe

can reduce that clearance to 12 in, provided that the

terminate in an approved metal or masonry

chimney?

shield has a 1-in. air gap between it and the wall. (In

rural areas, installers often use the porcelain insula-

tors sold for electric fences to space head shields 1 in.

away from walls.) Metal heat shields also need a 1-in.

air gap at the bottom, so air can circulate between

the shield and the wall.

Floors must be protected a minimum of 18 in.

beyond the stove on all sides. ( Protected means a noncombustible surface.) A good circulation of air under

a wood stove is essential, so wood stove legs are

typically 2 in. to 6 in. long. Floor protection beneath

a stove must be at least 2 in. thick if stove legs are

longer than 6 in.; if stove legs are 2 in. to 6 in. long, the floor protection must be at least 4 in. thick.

C H I M N E Y S A N D F I R E P L A C E S 219

CHAPTER 10

INTERIORS

AS YOU INSPECT INTERIOR SURFACES, be methodi-

cal. It doesn’t matter whether you start in the attic and work down or start in the basement and work up, but

examine every room and every closet, open and close every cabinet door or drawer, step on every stair tread, and note every detail you pass as you walk through the house.

For the most part, the condition of interior surfaces—

peeling paint, scuffed floors, abraded countertops—will

be largely cosmetic, not too costly to repair or replace and thus no great cause for concern.

But occasionally, cracked plaster, extensive mold, or

tilting trim boards echo a larger pattern of neglect or

failure that is serious. An observant inspector will recall troubling conditions seen in other parts of the house and start to see patterns.

220 INTERIORS

Some elements of a house interior are sufficiently

complicated that they warrant their own chapters,

so they are only mentioned in passing here: doors

and windows (Chapter 11), kitchen and bathrooms

(Chapter 12), electrical wiring (Chapter 6), plumbing

(Chapter 7), and hazardous materials (Chapter 14).

Finish Surfaces

People have used plaster in buildings since prehistoric

times. Drywall, the other material commonly used to

cover walls and ceilings, is a relative newcomer that

became widespread after World War II. Installing

drywall is radically different from applying plaster,

but drywall’s core material is gypsum rock, the same

material used since ancient times to make plaster.

Plaster and drywall are so widely used as interior

surfaces because both are hard and durable. They are

Interiors are mostly about surfaces: floors, walls, ceil-

also relatively inflexible and hence brittle; they crack

ings, steps; openings: mostly doors and windows; and

fixtures: bathrooms, kitchens, and fireplaces. Inspect-

when the framing they are attached to moves. And all

ing interiors is a bit like seeing through walls to see

buildings move to a degree because of the seasonal

what has happened before you arrived.

expansion and contraction of building materials (or

soil), or because of foundation settlement.

It’s worth repeating that most hairline cracks,

beveled, providing a depression to be filled by joint

surface pocks, and dings can be repaired easily with

tape and compound. Each layer of joint compound

patching plaster, joint compound, or spackle and

must be allowed to dry thoroughly before sanding

then painted.

smooth and applying the next coat.

IS IT DRYWALL? Most homes built after the

DRYWALL

1950s have drywall surfaces, except for high-end

Sometimes called Sheetrock® after a popular brand,

homes whose owners could afford plaster. Run your

drywall typically consists of 4-ft.-wide panels that

hand over the surface. Drywall surfaces tend to be

are screwed or nailed to ceiling joists and wall studs.

smooth, whereas even slick plaster surfaces have

Sandwiched between layers of paper, drywall’s

a slightly gritty feel. Look across a drywall surface

gypsum core is almost as hard and durable as plaster,

into the light and you can almost always see a faint

though it requires much less skill to install. Appro-

panel joint, even when expertly done. But perhaps the

priately, the term drywall distinguishes these panels best test is rapping a knuckle across a panel: Drywall

from plaster, which is applied wet and may take

sounds hollow till you cross a stud, at which point the

weeks to dry thoroughly.

sound becomes higher and less hollow.

NOTE : A special paperless drywall is manufactured NAIL AND SCREW PULL-THROUGHS AND

to use in mold-prone areas such as basements and

POPS. The most common cause of nail or screw pops bathrooms.

is an installer driving them too deep or not using

Panel joints are concealed with tape and usually

enough of them. After new nails or screws are driven

three coats of joint compound that render surfaces

near popped ones, holes can be filled with joint com-

smooth. Each panel’s two long edges are slightly

pound, sanded, and painted.

221

If nail or screw pops are widespread in a new house

If the roof is framed with trusses, cracking along

and are accompanied by gaps at the top and bottom

wall–ceiling joints on exterior walls is not un-

of walls, green lumber was used to frame the house

common. Because these cracks are in response to

rather than kiln-dried lumber, which shrinks less.

seasonal fluctuations they will recur. It's best to seal

The framing must be allowed to finish shrinking

cracks with an elastomeric caulk that will flex, or

before repairs are made.

hide them with trim.

Isolated bulges in walls indicate that individual

Large cracks that run diagonally from door or win-

studs have twisted, again, because green lumber

dow corners (see the right photo on p. 224) are often was used.

caused by structural movement. Loads concentrate

Widespread nail or screw pops in a ceiling may be

on headers, so diagonal cracks indicate that one end

due to attic joist flexion—in other words, when joists

of the header is sinking. It may be necessary to have a

are not sized large enough to support items stored in

structural engineer assess the foundation.

the attic or the live loads of someone walking across

Similarly, large cracks at the top or bottom of a

attic joists.

wall and flooring that slopes toward the base of the

READING DRYWALL CRACKS. Hairline cracks

wall are typically caused by inadequate support be-

are rarely a problem and can usually be ignored.

neath the wall. Floor joists may need to be bolstered

Cracking along panel seams and joint tape pulling

or perhaps a girder added; a structural engineer may

free from drywall occurs when an installer didn’t use

be needed to design a long-term solution.

enough joint compound beneath and over the tape.

WATER STAINS AND MOLD. Excessive conden-

Loose tape should be removed and replaced with new

sation on and water stains around windows is often

compound and tape.

caused by excess interior moisture or from insuffi-

Vertical cracks at door and window corners are

cient ventilation in the attic. Adding roof vents (see

telegraphing drywall joints that were (incorrectly)

p. 80) and making sure that existing bath and kitchen aligned with framing around the opening; headers

fans vent to the outside should help. A cracked heat

shrank and drywall cracked. Cracks can be patched.

exchanger (see p. 185) and leaking furnace ducts can also dump water vapor (a byproduct of combustion)

into living spaces.

Water stains on exterior walls, especially above

windows, may be caused by missing flashing above

the window, gaps between exterior trim and siding,

and roof and gutter leaks.

Mold needs three things to grow: water,

a temperature range between 40°F and 100°F, and

organic matter, such as lumber or paper, to feed on.

When inspecting damp-prone areas such as finished

basements, be sure to pull furniture away from sub-

area walls to look for mold.

Minor surface mold on walls, especially in kitchens

and baths is typically caused by excess moisture and

insufficient ventilation. Minor mold can often be

Water damage on the ceiling and this high on the walls

wiped or scrubbed off. Adding or upsizing ventilation

may have multiple causes, including excessive interior

fans will probably keep mold from returning.

moisture, inadequate attic ventilation, missing or un-

maintained gutters, and perhaps a leaky roof.

222 INTERIORS

Extensive surface mold and crumbling drywall

SMOKE DETECTORS

indicates sustained/severe exterior leaks or excess

interior moisture. In such cases, there’s probably

Smoke detectors (smoke alarms) are

extensive mold growing inside the walls, too. After

required by code in sleeping areas (or just outside

the source(s) of the moisture are identified and cor-

them) and on every level of the house, including

rected, a mold-remediation contractor will need to

the basement, whether it’s finished or not. Battery-

remove and replace the moldy drywall and perhaps

powered alarms are usually acceptable in existing

the studs, too.

residences, but in new construction or substantial

remodels, codes may call for hardwired alarms with

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

battery backup. Test smoke detectors to see if they

are in good working order and, on your inspection

report, note missing covers or batteries. If local codes

■■ Determine what the walls and ceilings are cov-

require carbon monoxide detectors as well, note their

ered with—drywall or plaster.

location and condition too.

■■ Are any surfaces cracked? Is cracking isolated or

widespread? Are they mostly hairline cracks or

are some deeper? Are cracks active or inactive?

■■ If surfaces are drywall, note instances where

there’s cracking along panel joints or lifted joint

tape. If it’s widespread, the installer may have

been inexpert.

coats and brown coats were left rough and were

■■ Take special note of cracks that run diagonally

often scratched with a plasterer’s comb before they

from window or door trim corners.

set completely, so the next coat would have grooves

■■ Is there water damage on any surfaces? If so, try

to explain it by possible leak sources you’ve seen

to adhere to. Finish coats are quite thin (1⁄16 in.) and

elsewhere during your inspection.

very hard.

■■ Are any surfaces moldy? How isolated or wide-

IS IT PLASTER? Once it has dried, a plaster-and-

spread is the mold?

lath assembly is considerably thicker and harder

■■ What is the most likely explanation of where

than drywall. When you rap across a plaster surface,

mold-related moisture is coming from?

the sound is uniform whether you rap over a stud or

between studs. Plaster is also slightly gritty (cementi-

PLASTER

tious) to the touch. If the attic is unfinished, you

Traditional plastering is installed in several steps.

should be able to see the backside of the plaster lath.

After wood or metal lath is nailed to the framing,

READING PLASTER CRACKS. Because plaster is

the plasterer trowels on a scratch coat (base coat) of

harder and more brittle than drywall, hairline cracks

wet plaster that oozes through the gaps in the lath

are common and usually cosmetic. Gently pressing

and becomes a mechanical key when it hardens.

along both sides of a crack will help determine if the

When the scratch coat has dried sufficiently, a brown

plaster has detached from its lath; soundly attached

coat is troweled on and then roughened after it has

plaster won’t move.

set slightly. The finish coat (white coat) is the final

Cracks that expand and shrink seasonally are

surface, typically smooth though sometimes textured

common in older homes whose lot has a high clay

to conform with an architectural style.

content. Soil beneath the foundation swells during

Before the twentieth century, plasterers often

the wet season, lifting the house; during the dry

mixed animal hair into scratch and brown coats to

season, the house settles downward. Using flexible

help them stick. The finish coat was usually a mixture

mesh tape and sealing cracks with flexible elasto-

of gauging plaster and lime, for uniformity. Scratch

meric caulk may make cracks less obvious.

I N T E R I O R S 223

The plaster that oozes through lath is called a “key”;

Diagonal cracks that extend out from the corner of a

when keys break, plaster may crack or even fall off. Ex-

window or doorway may be a sign of periodic move-

tensive plaster cracking is difficult to repair so it’s fre-ment or even structural failure. Headers over doors

quently replaced or covered over with drywall panels.

and windows carry considerable loads and when they

aren’t supported adequately, one side of the header

drops and finish surfaces crack.

Large cracks that run diagonally from door or

or toilet may be the source of the leak, or perhaps old

window corners, as shown in the right photo

pipes are leaking. If the wet wall of a bathroom has

above, are typically caused by structural movement.

an access panel, open it to see what condition the

Because loads concentrate on headers, diagonal

pipes are in.

cracks indicate that one end of the header is sinking

Mold is less common on plaster because

because the bottom of a stud has rotted or some part

plaster, unlike paper-faced drywall, is inorganic. Any

of the foundation has failed. A structural engineer

mold that does form on plaster usually forms on soap

should assess the foundation.

residue or dirt that has adhered to the plaster surface.

Cracked ceilings and damaged ornamental plaster

Minor mold should scrub off easily. But extensive

molding or medallions are common in older homes:

plaster keys break and gravity does the rest. If

cracking is limited, it may be possible to rescrew the

plaster to the lath, using washered screws. Another

strategy is covering cracked ceilings with a layer of

drywall screwed to ceiling joists. If attic joists are

LOW CEILINGS

undersize, storing personal effects on them will

increase flexion and ceiling cracking.

Rooms with ceilings less than

WATER STAINS AND MOLD. Water stains on

7 ft. 6 in. high may not be considered habitable

plaster are caused by most of the conditions that

by local building departments. Such rooms

should not be counted as bedrooms in a real-

stain drywall (discussed earlier), including absent

estate listing, though there are exceptions to

window flashing, leaking roofs, inadequate venti-

the general rule that allow for sloping ceilings

lation, and excess interior moisture. Finding and

and low beams.

correcting the source of the water is the first step in

any remediation. In older homes, a leaky tub, shower,

224 INTERIORS

mold and detached or crumbling plaster suggest a

ACOUSTIC TILE CEILINGS

sustained moisture problem and probable mold dam-

age inside the walls. A mold-remediation contractor

If house walls are plaster but ceilings

should be hired to assess and correct the problem.

are covered with acoustic tiles, the tiles are probably

covering up plaster ceilings in bad condition. Note

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

stained or sagging sections of tile, because they may

indicate that other sections are about to fail. If the

■■ Is any of the plaster water stained? What is the

tiles hang from a metal support grid, you may be able

most likely source of the moisture?

to remove (push up) a few tiles to get a better idea

■■ Is the plaster solidly attached or are there areas

of what’s going on above. Wear a dust mask and eye

where it is cracking or bulging?

protection if you do so.

NOTE : Pre-1979 acoustic ceilings with a “cottage-

■■ Are cracks mostly hairline cracks or are some

larger, with crumbling edges?

cheese” texture may contain asbestos to deaden

sound and retard the spread of fire. If you come

■■ Do any of the larger plaster cracks suggest struc-

across such a ceiling texture, call in a certified

tural movement?

asbestos-abatement inspector to assess its condition

■■ What is the condition of plaster ceilings? Do any

and advise homeowners.

ceilings sag or crack excessively?

■■ Is mold present on any plaster surfaces? Is it

widespread or isolated?

MISCELLANEOUS SURFACES

You may also find walls covered with wood paneling

or wallpaper; report on their condition.

WALLPAPER WITH PURPLE-PINK BLOTCHES

bleeding through probably has mold growing on it

and the wallpaper adhesive. The wallpaper will prob-

ably also be lumpy. Mold loves wallpaper, especially

when there’s excess moisture present. Have a mold-

abatement specialist assess the condition and make

recommendations.

Spray acoustic ceilings allow builders to finish ceilings BLISTERING VINYL WALLPAPER is common

quickly and cheaply because the material is sprayed

in humid regions. When vinyl wallpaper is installed

directly on the drywall. Acoustic ceilings installed

before the late 1970s often contain asbestos.

on exterior walls, moisture can get trapped behind

it and mold will flourish. The wallpaper should be

stripped and walls scrubbed to remove mold, if any.

If mold is extensive, a mold-abatement specialist

should remove a section of drywall to see if mold is

was in bad condition. If the paneling flexes when you

inside the walls, too.

press it and knuckle-rapping produces a high, boom-

WOOD PANELING can be left alone if it’s in

ing sound, the paneling may be attached directly to

decent condition. Press it with the palms of your

studs, a common technique in the 1950s and early

hands to see if it flexes excessively and then rap your

1960s. Mid-century wood paneling can be pretty thin

knuckle across its surfaces. An even, dull sound sug-

(1⁄4 in. thick or less, also called doorskin), so it may

gests that it may be installed directly over plaster or

flex and crack if its only supports are studs 16 in. or

drywall, perhaps because the original wall surface

24 in. on-center.

I N T E R I O R S 225

Some jurisdictions are concerned about wood

releasing water vapor or mineral spirits and additives

paneling installed directly over open wood framing,

into the air.

as these structures burn down very quickly if a fire

The warmer the room and the better the ventila-

should start. Paneling over drywall or plaster is much

tion, the sooner smells will dissipate. In a room that

more fire resistant.

is 60°F or warmer, acrylic latexes typically will be

dry enough to recoat in 2 hours to 4 hours. Oil-based

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

paints require at least 24 hours. In cooler or more

humid conditions, odors may linger because paints

■■ If walls are covered with wallpaper, what is its

need longer to cure: up to 10 days for latex, up to

general condition? Are any seams lifting?

30 days for oil-based paints.

■■ Scrutinize wallpaper at the tops of walls and near

NEW PAINT THAT DOESN’T ADHERE WELL

windows and doors for water stains.

■■

or fully hide paint beneath probably wasn’t adequately

Is any of the wallpaper lumpy, with purple-pink

blotches? It’s probably moldy.

prepped or applied; poor-quality paint doesn’t cover

■■ Vinyl wallpaper is a bad choice for moisture-

well. Surfaces will probably need to be washed and

prone regions. It should be stripped.

sanded before a new coat of good-quality paint can

■■ If any walls are paneled, are panels attached

be applied.

directly to studs or have they been installed over

IF OLD WATER STAINS OR WOOD KNOTS

plaster or drywall?

BLEED THROUGH newer paint, the stains were

■■ Is any wood paneling abraded, delaminating, or

never sufficiently primed with a sealer such as white

water-stained?

pigmented shellac. It’s also important that the source

of the water leak be located and repaired before

Paint and Clear Finishes

repainting.

The state of house paint and clear finishes is a sur-

IF PAINT AT THE TOP OF A WALL IS MOLDY,

face matter, but it’s not superficial because it reflects there is excessive interior moisture, gaps in exterior

the level of house maintenance and care.

siding or flashing, a leaky roof, or some other condi-

This tip from a pro: “Check the closets. When

tion that needs attention before painting.

houses are gussied up for sale, they often get re-

IF FLAT PAINT ON TRIM IS GRIMY, worn, or

planted and landscaped, painted inside and out, and

difficult to clean, it should be sanded and painted

staged to the max. But in the rush to get a house to

over with semigloss or gloss paint. Trim gets a lot of

market, homeowners usually run out of steam and

wear, especially from children.

time and so ignore closets. Thus closets may show

IF PAINT SAMPLES TEST POSITIVE FOR

water stains, cracks, and lead paint that was painted

LEAD but paint surfaces are intact—not peeling or

over elsewhere.”

flaking—there is little chance of ingestion or inha-

lation as long as the paint is not disturbed. (Lead

COMMON PAINT CONCERNS

paint typically becomes airborne if it is sanded,

Because many homeowners paint a house just before

stripped, or abraded.) In other words, painting over

putting it up for sale, inspectors sometimes find

existing lead paint with nonlead paint is a reason-

paint-related issues that would be unnoticeable if

able short-term solution. For more information

the paint weren’t fresh.

about lead-related questions, see Chapters 2 and 14

PAINT THAT CONTINUES TO SMELL weeks

or contact the National Lead Information Center at

or even months after it has been applied probably

www2.epa.gov/lead/forms/lead-hotline-national-

had upper coats applied over a first coat that was not

lead-information-center.

fully dry. As paint dries, it outgases (gives off gases), 226 INTERIORS

OIL. If a few drops of boiled linseed oil soak

into the woodwork, you have an oil finish: tung oil,

linseed, Watco®, or the like. If the oil beads up on

the surface, the woodwork has a hard finish, such as

lacquer, varnish, or shellac. Keep investigating.

DENATURED ALCOHOL. If the finish quickly

gets gummy after applying denatured alcohol,

congratulations! It’s shellac, which will readily

accept a new coat of shellac after a modest sanding

with an abrasive nylon pad or 220-grit sandpaper.

Older woodwork with an orange tinge is often

shellac-coated.

MINERAL SPIRITS ( PAINT THINNER ) . Mineral

spirits will dissolve wax immediately. Dampen a rag

and wipe once. If there’s a yellowish or light brown

Lead paint, which was banned in 1978, is usually not

a health hazard if it is sealed by newer paint in good

residue on the rag, it’s definitely wax. If your wood-

condition. The old enamel lead paint on this threshold,

work finish has an unevenly shiny, runny appearance,

however, has abraded badly and could be inhaled or

ingested; it should be removed by a lead-abatement

suspect spray-on wax.

specialist.

LACQUER THINNER . Because lacquer thinner

dissolves both varnish and shellac, try denatured

alcohol first. If alcohol doesn’t dissolve the finish but WHAT’S THAT CLEAR FINISH?

lacquer thinner does, it’s varnish.

Clear finishes include polyurethane, varnish, lacquer,

ACETONE. Acetone will dissolve varnish, too, in

and shellac. Polyurethane is the most durable of

about 30 seconds. But if acetone doesn’t affect the

the clear finishes and thus the most suitable for

finish, it’s probably polyurethane.

heavy-traffic surfaces, such as trim and stair parts.

Although poly and varnish resist moisture, they

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

may become cloudy with sustained exposure to wet

conditions. Shellac also clouds up near water. Spar

■

■

Does new paint still smell? How recently were

varnish—originally used on boats—has a hard finish

rooms painted? Find out from homeowners if the

that stands up well to water, if well maintained.

paint was latex or oil based.

Home inspectors aren’t expected to identify what

■

■

If a home has been newly painted, check closets

for evidence of earlier, lead-based paint.

clear finish was used, but your clients might appreci-

■

■

Home centers sell inexpensive DIY kits for testing

ate knowing the simple sequence of identifying fin-

the presence of lead paints. If suspect paint is

ishes that follows. If homeowners know what finish

abraded, worn, or detaching, it should be tested.

is presently on woodwork, stairs, or floors, they will

■

■

Scan painted surfaces for bleed-through water

have a better chance of finding a compatible material

stains or knots on wood trim. Such blemishes

with which to refinish or touch up what’s there.

suggest surfaces that were not adequately

To identify a finish, rub on a small amount of the

prepped before painting.

test solvents given in this list, starting at the top of the

■

■

If any painted surface is moldy, try to determine

the source of the moisture that is promoting

list (the most benign) and working down till you’ve

mold growth.

got your answer. When applying solvents, wear rubber

gloves, open the windows, and wear a respirator.

I N T E R I O R S 227

Interior Trim

PAINTED TRIM SPLIT by nailing too close to

Interior trim is often called casing or molding. Trim

the edges can be filled and painted over. If the trim

helps establish the character of a room by accenting

has a clear finish, try to match the original wood

or embellishing features, like a picture frame. Trim

color with wood filler before refinishing.

is also functional, concealing gaps and rough edges

GAPS UNDER BASEBOARD TRIM are com-

where walls meet floors, ceilings, doors, and win-

mon. In fact, baseboard trim should float above wood

dows. It may seem merely decorative, but trim can

flooring so that flooring can expand and contract

signal potential structural problems if you know how

seasonally.

to read it.

TILTING TRIM AND OUT-OF-SQUARE DOOR

CASING are common and usually cosmetic in older

COMMON TRIM CONCERNS

homes. These conditions are usually caused by

GAPS AT CORNERS where trim pieces meet are

cumulative settlement over many years, especially

common as the wood shrinks. If the trim is painted,

if the foundation is undersize or unreinforced. But

gaps can be filled and painted.

when trim tilts downward in one direction and is

SIGNS OF STRUCTURAL

DISTRESS

Heavy load on wall that was

originally nonbearing

Trim tilts down to

failed support.

Cracks or gaps

Diagonal cracks

from corners

Floor slopes

Gap

down to base

of now load-

bearing wall.

228 INTERIORS

INTERIOR TRIM

Window casing

Crown molding

Picture molding

This wooden baseboard below a window has suffered

water damage for many years, as has the flooring that

abuts it. The baseboard should be removed so that the

framing behind it can be checked for water damage

and decay.

accompanied by diagonal cracking at door and win-

Chair rail

dow corners, there may be structural distress, such as

Baseboard

a rotted support post or a sinking pad, a failed or ab-

Door casing

sent girder, or a section of foundation that is failing,

often because inadequate drainage has undermined

the footing.

THE CASE FOR NOT LEVELING TRIM

The older a house, the less likely its floors and ceil-

may clash with existing trim that’s neither. A good

ings will be level. If homeowners ask you what can

carpenter will split the difference, raising or lower-

be done about unlevel trim, give them this advice:

ing one end of a trim board until the eye accepts the

“Leave it. Don’t make yourself crazy trying to level

compromise.

baseboards or crown molding. You won’t succeed,

Trim can also help give the illusion of a level

and trim that’s level next to a surface that isn’t will

ceiling—helpful, when upper kitchen cabinets must

only emphasize the discrepancy. Horizontal trim

be set level even if the ceiling isn’t. After leveling and should be roughly parallel to a floor or a ceiling.” As

securing upper cabinets, a smart installer will use a

master carpenter Joseph Beals puts it, “Baseboard is

strip of molding to cover any gaps above. If you know

effectively floor trim, and the floor plane is the criti-

what to look for, you may see an uneven strip of

cal reference, level or not.”

molding between the cabinets and the ceiling. But if

Mid-wall elements such as chair rails, picture rails,

the cover trim matches the cabinet finish, chances

and wainscoting require yet more fudging. Ideally,

are nobody else will notice the difference.

chair rails should be level and wainscoting stiles

(vertical pieces) should be plumb, but those ideals

I N T E R I O R S 229

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

they are hard to distinguish from solid wood. Fre-

quently, an inspector’s first task is determining what

■■ Small gaps where trim boards in a corner meet

type of flooring is present.

are common. Gaps under baseboard trim are also

common.

Flooring is only the top layer of a system that usu-

■■ Trim split by nails or screws too close to the edge

ally includes underlayment and subflooring as well

can be filled and refinished.

as structural members, such as joists and girders. If

■■ Tilting window or door trim and diagonal crack-

finish floors are to be solid and long lasting, all parts ing at corners may indicate failed structural sup-of the flooring system must be sized and spaced cor-

ports. Did you see likely causes in the basement

rectly for the loads they will carry. Excessive flexion

or crawl space inspection?

degrades all types of flooring. Also, although some

flooring materials can withstand moisture better

Floors

than others, all will degrade in time if installed in

Flooring and base molding are usually the last build-

chronically damp locations.

ing materials to be installed and flooring is the first

to show its age, as it is crushed by footsteps, swollen

DETERMINING WOOD FLOORING TYPE

by moisture, and abraded by dirt. Today’s crop of

AND THICKNESS

flooring and floor finishes is far more durable and

The type of flooring is usually obvious just by looking

varied than was available a generation ago. Some

at it but some types of engineered wood flooring are

types of engineered flooring are so sophisticated that

hard to distinguish from conventional solid-strip

FLOORING CHOICES

SOLID

ENGINEERED

RESILIENT

TILE AND

CHARACTERISTIC

LAMINATE

BAMBOO

PALM

CORK

CONCRETE

WOOD

WOOD

FLOORING

STONE

DURABILITY

Good

Very good

Excellent

Excellent

Very

Very

good

good

Good*

Excellent

Excellent

Sweep

REQUIRED

Sweep

Sweep

Damp

Sweep

or

MAINTENANCE

regularly

regularly

mop

Damp mop

Sweep

regularly

regularly

damp-

Wet mop

Wet mop

mop

WATER

Poor

Poor

RESISTANCE†

Poor

Fair

Good

Good

to excellent

to fair

to fair

Poor

Excellent

Excellent

COMFORT

UNDERFOOT

Flexes

Flexes

Flexes

Soft

Flexes

Flexes

Soft

Hard

Hard

Linoleum,

GREEN CREDS

Yes

Mixed

No

yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Mixed

vinyl, no‡

COST§

$–$$$

$–$$

$

$

$–$$

$$

$$–

$$$

$$–$$$

$–$$

*Durable but deforms if furniture sits on same spot for too long.

†Correct persistent moisture problems before converting any areas to living space.

‡Linoleum and recycled rubber are considered green; vinyl is not.

§Costs do not reflect installation charges.

230 INTERIORS

flooring, except by noting engineered board ends,

which are the width of three pieces of conventional

strip flooring. To ascertain the thickness of wood

THICK ENOUGH TO SAND?

flooring and subflooring, remove a forced-hot air

register and look at the exposed cross-section of

You can sand only the top veneer layer

flooring.

of engineered wood flooring, which is typically

If that’s not possible, you can pull up a doorway

5⁄32 in. thick. Solid-wood, tongue-and-groove (T&G)

threshold or remove baseboard trim and bore a small

strip flooring is typically 3⁄4 in. thick, but you can

hole to expose a cross section of flooring. Or drill

sand down only to the top of the tongue at one edge

in a closet where no one will see the hole. If floors

of each board. If you sand lower, you’ll hit flooring

nails. T&G nail heads should be driven in at an angle are covered with carpet, pull up a corner to expose

through the top of the tongue and then set flush.

plywood or OSB subflooring, whose thickness is

usually stamped on each panel. If the underside of

the subflooring is visible in the basement, look for

answers there. Knowing the thickness of subflooring

is useful if you are trying to determine why floors are

springy or if, say, you plan to install new flooring that requires subflooring of a certain thickness. Resilient

flooring, for example, is thin and so depends on a

relatively thick subfloor and an underlayment that’s

smooth, thick, and flat. The grout between floor tiles

will crack if subflooring that's too thin flexes.

COMMON FLOOR CONCERNS

The most common flooring complaint is squeaking,

which is caused by movement: floorboards rubbing

These hardwood floors are cupped. The raised edges

together or subflooring rubbing against a nail shank

suggest moisture came from below, perhaps from

that no longer holds the subfloor to a joist. It’s usually damp subflooring and/or poor ventilation.

hard to eliminate floor squeaks completely.

FLOORS THAT ARE NOT LEVEL are common in

older homes in which shrinking floor joists or foun-

HARDWOOD FLOORING THAT CUPS has

dation settlement has occurred. If floors are other-

usually absorbed moisture through its underside.

wise sound, homeowners should enjoy their charm

Because the underside of each board expands in rela-

and learn to live with them.

tion to its drier top side, top edges are pushed up. If

SQUEAKING BENEATH CARPETS is usually

cupping is slight, it may be possible (if unlikely) to

caused by subflooring that was not adequately nailed

sand down high spots. Otherwise, cupped flooring

or glued in newer homes. Carpet must be removed

should be removed and the moisture corrected before

to access and renail the subflooring. If carpet has

replacing the flooring.

been newly installed over wood flooring, an inspector

DAMAGED FLOORING NEAR EXTERIOR

should ask homeowners to verify (in writing) that the

DOORS is usually caused by water: excess condensa-

wood flooring underneath is in good condition; too

tion in cold weather, driving rains or drifting snow,

often, new carpet is hiding wood flooring that was

insufficient weather stripping, a failed threshold or

trashed (or soaked) by an unruly pet.

absent floor pan, a deck or patio that is too high or

I N T E R I O R S 231

inadequately flashed, an exterior door unprotected

LOOSE CERAMIC FLOOR TILES and cracked

by a porch roof, poor maintenance (not refinishing

grout joints are caused by adhesive that was insuf-

worn floorboards), and so on.

ficiently thick or inexpertly applied or by excessive

FLOORING THAT BOWS in the center of a room

flexion because of subflooring that was too thin.

may have been installed without a gap around its pe-

LARGE PAVER TILES (12 in. sq.) with cracks

rimeter to allow for expansion. As flooring expands,

across their faces were set in a mortar bed that was

it has nowhere to go but up. Bowed flooring may be

not thick enough to support the pavers, which can be

removed, cut down to create a gap around the perim-

irregular.

eter, and reinstalled.

LOOSE OR DETERIORATED LINOLEUM near a

LOCALIZED SPRINGINESS or low spots in floor-

toilet or tub may be hiding a persistent leak or, pos-

ing are probably caused by an undersize footing pad

sibly, rotted subflooring. Existing flooring may need

or by a deteriorated or absent post beneath a girder.

to be removed so the subflooring can be examined

If you find wet rot or insect damage at the base of the

and, if necessary, replaced. The leak source must also

post, that situation will need to be corrected before

be corrected.

anything else can be done.

LINOLEUM OR VINYL TILES that are stained

WIDESPREAD SPRINGINESS in floors and joists

or lumpy were probably installed over a slab that is

sagging in mid-span are caused by joists that are too

wicking moisture from below. Repairs may be exten-

small for a span or by a failed or absent girder. If the

sive. At the very least, the slab should be sealed with

girder seems sound, adding posts or new pads may

a moisture-resistant coating before new flooring can

fix the problem. Otherwise, add a girder to reduce the

be installed. Unglazed ceramic tiles are often best

distance that joists span.

for below grade or basement concrete floors as the

FLOORING THAT CROWNS ABOVE A GIRDER,

moisture from below can flow through the tiles and

sloping downward toward the outside walls, can

dry on the surface.

often be explained by the failure of all or part of a

RESILIENT TILES THAT CONTAIN ASBES-

perimeter foundation, as can doors and windows that

TOS are generally not a health concern unless they are difficult to open and cracking at the corners of

have become abraded or have deteriorated because of

openings.

sustained contact with moisture. If they are flat and

These cracked ceramic tile floors may indicate water

Sometimes it’s possible to pull up a carpet at a corner

entry and decay in the supporting subflooring. Areas

and find water stains, rusted nails, and decay. This

beneath should be checked, if accessible, and repaired

condition is common in basements or on other below-

as needed.

grade concrete slabs.

232 INTERIORS

well attached, it may be possible to cover them with

new flooring; if not, they should be removed by an

STAIR TERMS

asbestos-abatement contractor.

CARPET IN BASEMENTS is often suspect be-

cause of persistent dampness and inadequate ventila-

tion in subgrade areas. Carpet installed over slab is

particularly problematic because moisture can wick

Skirtboard

through concrete.

Tread

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

Riser

■■ What kind of flooring is present? What is its

Center

general condition and how is it wearing where it

carriage

Railing

abuts exterior doors and other high-wear areas?

Any water-related damage?

Housed

Baluster

stringer

■■ Are floors solid or springy? If springy, try to find

out why, such as too-thin subflooring or joists

spaced too far apart.

■■ Does flooring squeak? Try to determine why.

Newel post

■■ If there’s wood flooring, remove floor registers to

see a cross section of the flooring and subfloor-

ing. Is the top layer of the wood flooring thick

enough to be sanded?

■■ Do any portions of wood flooring cup, bow, or

perhaps crown over a girder?

■■ If there are ceramic tile floors, are tiles solidly

well wall, the carriages beneath the staircase may be

attached? Is grout intact or cracked?

failing. In that case, an experienced carpenter should

■■ Is resilient flooring water stained, lifting, or dam-

expose the substructure (the framing that supports

aged where it abuts cabinet bottoms, along tubs

the stairs) to better diagnose the situation.

or showers, or along the base of toilets? If the

floor seems springy, the subfloor or floor joists

RISERS AND TREADS

may be water damaged. Check further.

Each step consists of a riser, the vertical part that

■■ What is the condition of resilient flooring in a

determines its height, and a tread, the horizontal

basement or other subgrade area? If the flooring

was installed over a concrete slab, look for lifting

part you step on. Stair dimensions must be consistent

or moisture-related damage.

within each flight. Varying riser height between one

■■ Carpet installed in subgrade or moisture-prone

step and the next will disrupt a stair-user’s rhythm,

areas warrants a closer look. Ask the homeowner

which could cause him or her to trip and fall.

if you can lift a corner.

Tread widths sometimes vary on the bottom two

or three steps of a main staircase, for dramatic ef-

Staircases

fect. Widths also vary on portions of winder stairs,

Staircases are complex structures and diagnosing

in which a narrow turning radius requires that some

problems can be tricky. It may be possible to repair

treads be pie shaped. But riser height must never vary squeaky treads with glue and a few screws; but if, say,

more than 3⁄8 in. in a single run. If you find uneven

stairs tilt to one side and there’s a gap along a stair-

steps, emphasize them in your report because they

I N T E R I O R S 233

a major remodel, however, homeowners may be

required to rebuild such structures so that they con-

form to current building codes.

TREADS CRACK because they aren’t supported

adequately or they weren’t made from thick enough

stock, which is typically 1 in. thick after milling.

Removing damaged treads requires prying or cutting

them out. But installing replacements gets tricky

because tread edges are often rabbeted to risers or

tread ends must be housed in (let into) stringers.

A FEW SQUEAKY STEPS may be fixable without

Step height must not vary in a flight of stairs; steps of uneven height can disrupt a stair-user’s rhythm and

removing finish materials around the staircase. If

cause a fall. Here, a smaller top step could put some-

stairs are painted or carpeted, try caulking squeaky

one on an unsafe footing.

joints with subflooring adhesive, which stays some-

what flexible after it has cured. Don’t use nails;

are a safety hazard; uneven steps should be reframed

they will work loose or split the tread. It's better to

or rebuilt so that step heights are consistent.

countersink screws, but they won’t hold for long if

LOW HEADROOM AND DOORS THAT SWING

stairs are springy.

OUT over downward staircases are safety hazards

SOLID BUT EXCESSIVELY SQUEAKY STEPS

that are not allowed in new construction, but are

have probably worked loose. When new they are

often permitted under grandfather clauses (long-

tightly wedged into housed stringers, but wedges

established prior use) in older houses. If there is

work loose. Or treads flex excessively because the

Low stair headroom is typically permitted in older

This staircase has two strikes against it: a door that

homes but not in new construction. Here, homeowners

swings out over a downward run and the upper end of

have alerted users to the hazard and provided a solid

a railing that projects out and could catch a stair user’s vertical grip-rail to aid descent.

clothing, causing a fall.

234 INTERIORS

staircase’s center carriage slips down and now no

longer supports them. To drive in wedges or bolster

a failing center carriage, the repairer will need access

to the underside of the staircase.

STAIRCASE SAFETY

STEPS THAT ARE EXCESSIVELY SPRINGY

AND CODE

or sag in the middle need the same cure: accessing

the underside of the staircase to bolster the center

Modern building standards call for

carriage.

railings at least 36 in. high for any deck, stair, or

landing more than 30 in. above an adjacent sur-

RAILINGS, BALUSTERS,

face. Openings between balusters or between rails

AND NEWEL POSTS

and steps must be less than 4 in. wide. Large rail-

Railings, balusters, and newel posts make up the

ing openings that could allow a child to fall through

staircase superstructure and are usually repaired

should be modified for safety. Staircases with four or

after the substructure has been fixed. But because

more steps should have handrails that are between

loose newel posts are common in any home with

11⁄2 in. and 2 in. wide. Handrails should be placed and

shaped so they can be readily grasped for safety.

kids, newels often need tightening even if the stair-

Handrails should be 34 in. to 38 in. above the leading

case is fine otherwise.

edge of the stair treads. Handrails must return to the

STAIRS WITHOUT HANDRAILS must be writ-

railing or post or to the ground; they may not end in a

ten up as a fall danger. Handrails must be installed at

projection that could be hooked by clothing.

a height of 34 in. to 38 in. above three or more stair

treads. (Guardrail openings must be less than 4 in.

wide to prevent a child from falling through.)

LOOSE RAILINGS should be tightened at both

ends. The upper end of a railing often dead-ends into

a wall above, where it is anchored to a bracket under-

neath. Make sure the bracket is tight. The lower end

of a railing often attaches to a newel post, typically by a star nut on the underside of the railing (see “Inside

a Newel Post” on p. 236). Remove the access plug and tighten the star nut.

LOOSE BALUSTERS ARE COMMON. Balusters

can usually be accessed by removing the nosing (nose

molding) at the end of each step; reshimming and

regluing balusters usually works.

The openings in this guardrail (here, the distance

IF THE NEWEL POST WOBBLES, a carpenter

between balusters) are too large; a small child could

can try shimming underneath its base or screwing

slip through them. Guardrail openings must be less

than a ball 4 in. in diameter.

the post down with 3-in. screws. If that fix doesn’t

suffice, the post’s internal hardware probably needs

tightening. Newel posts often are hollow, with a

long, threaded rod inside, as shown in “Inside a

Newel Post.” To tighten the upper end of this rod,

concealed by the post cap, turn a nut against a

restraining plate. If the bottom end of the threaded

I N T E R I O R S 235

rotting or splitting, or the carriage may be separat-

INSIDE A NEWEL POST

ing from a stringer. Sagging on the open side of a

staircase is common because there are no wall studs

to bolt carriages to.

If there are large cracks or gaps at the top and

Cap

bottom of the stairs, you are seeing symptoms of a

falling carriage. When such failure occurs, the center

carriage has often pulled free from the doubled

header at the bottom of the stairwell opening.

To determine exactly what is going on, finish sur-

Star nut

faces on the underside of the staircase will have to be

Washered

removed. Not surprisingly, rebuilding a staircase can

Railing

nut

be disruptive and costly.

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

Threaded

■

■

Do stair treads squeak? How widespread is the

rod

problem? Are any treads split?

■

■

Stair heights must never vary within a flight of

Hollow

stairs. If you see steps of uneven height within

Plug

newel post

a flight, note it prominently in your report. It is

a fall hazard.

Unlike modern newel posts, older ones are often■■ Do staircases flex noticeably when someone hollow and attach to railings in various ways.

Unlike modern newel posts, older ones are often

walks on them? Stair carriages (supports under-

One common way is a star nut centered in the

hollow and attach to railings in various ways. One

neath) may be undersize or failing.

end of a railing, which is accessed by removing

common way is a star nut centered in the end of

a railing, which is accessed by removing a plug

■

■

Write up any staircases without handrails, they

a plug on the underside. The bottom of the post

on the underside. The bottom of the post may be

screwed to a stringer or held fast by an adjustable

are a fall hazard. Handrails must be installed at

may be screwed to a stringer or held fast by

rod-and-plate assembly running down the middle

a height of 34 in. to 38 in. above stair treads.

an adjustable rod-and-plate assembly running

of the post.

■

■

down the middle of the post.

Note loose railings or railings that end in a pro-

jection that could catch clothing and cause a fall.

Railings should end in a return, or attach to a

post or to a wall.

■

■

Are all openings in guardrails less than 4 in. to

prevent a child’s falling through?

rod emerges on the underside of the subflooring, it

■

■

can be tightened as well.

Does the newel post wobble? It should be tight-

ened so its wobble does not increase.

SUBSTRUCTURE REPAIRS

■

■

If a staircase tilts to one side, its structural sup-

If stairs tilt to one side, the carriage on the low side

ports on the low side may be failing.

is having difficulty—that is, nails or bolts holding it

■

■

Large cracks or gaps at the top and/or bottom

to wall studs may be pulling out, the framing may be

of the stairs may indicate a falling carriage.

236 INTERIORS

CHAPTER 11

DOORS and

WINDOWS

DOORS AND WINDOWS MUST WITHSTAND extreme

weather shifts, UV damage from the sun, cycles of soak-

ing and drying, and impatient inhabitants trying to force them open when they are swollen or painted shut. Doors

and windows must be durable yet movable, let in light yet keep out rain, and admit views and guests but deny drafts.

Mediators of outside and in, they play a critical role in how comfortable, healthful, and energy-efficient a home is.

Doors should never open over a descending staircase,

The crack above this door frame could be telegraph-

which could lead to a serious fall. Solutions include

ing a header that is sinking because a foundation

reversing the swing of the door or removing the door

support—a post, a pad, or a footing—has failed.

from the frame.

DOORS, DOOR FRAMES,

Doors

AND ROUGH OPENINGS

Historically, most doors have been made from wood,

A ROUGH OPENING is a framed opening in a wall,

though that is changing, partly because wood is a bit

roof, or floor platform. This opening will remain

too affected by the natural forces just listed. (We’ll

stable despite all the loads and movement around

look at other door materials in a bit.) Even small

it. Headers (lintels) are bearing beams that carry

variations in temperature and moisture cause wood

loads across the opening. Supporting a header on

doors to expand and contract. Meanwhile, the house

each side of the opening is the job of a king stud (full

in which the doors are installed is also moving. Mostly

length) and a shortened jack stud. Short cripple studs

built of wood, a house expands and contracts, but it

transfer loads from the wall’s top plate to the header,

also shifts due to seasonal or seismic soil movement.

though sometimes oversize headers big enough to

(Houses must also withstand lateral loads—side

reach the top plate are installed instead. Top and bot-

loads—such as wind or soil pushing against walls

tom (sole) plates further distribute loads.

and the live loads of the people inside, but that’s

DOOR FRAMES consist of several pieces: two

enough structure for now.)

side pieces (or side jambs) and a head jamb (or frame

Given all that movement and the close fit of doors

head) running across the top; exterior doors also

to frames (1⁄8-in. gap is common), sooner or later

have a sill spanning the bottom. (The sill may also

something’s got to give. How long a door fits in its

have a threshold, but more about that later.) Jambs

frame and how long it opens and closes without bind-

are further distinguished by the hardware they bear:

ing or scraping depends on the quality of its wood

The jamb on which the door is hung is the hinge

and its manufacture, how well it was prepped and

jamb; the jamb that receives the latch is the latch

sealed, and how skillfully it was installed. And, indi-

jamb (also called strike jamb or lock jamb).

rectly, how skillfully the house around it was framed.

DOOR ELEMENTS. On a common frame-and-

Let’s look at the whole assembly.

panel door, the thicker vertical elements are called

238 DOORS AND WINDOWS

DOOR, DOOR FRAME, AND

ROUGH OPENING

Rough Opening

Cripple stud

Door Frame

(Dragon’s teeth)

Door Elements

Head jamb

Head rail

Top

plate

Hinge

Header

stile

King

stud

Lock or

latch rail

Panel

Sole

plate

Hinge jamb

Bottom

Jack stud

Latch stile

rail

(trimmer stud)

Latch jamb

stiles, hence hinge stile and latch (or strike) stile.

weather stripped. If you see interior doors used as

Horizontal elements are called rails. Individual rail

exterior doors, note that in your inspection report;

names are also defined by their location, hence head

they won’t last.

rail (top rail), lock or latch rail, and bottom rail.

WIDTH. Standard interior doors are 2 ft. 6 in. and 2 ft. 8 in. wide. For doors leading to busy hallways,

DOOR SPECS

or if extra room is needed for a wheelchair or walker,

Building codes usually specify minimum door sizes

architects often specify 2 ft. 10 in. or 3 ft. Narrow

for entry and interior doors between rooms. Clients

doors (2 ft. to 2 ft. 4 in.) are available for half-baths may find it helpful to know if house doors are

and closets, and even narrower ones (1 ft. 4 in. to 1 ft.

standard size or must be ordered specially, which

10 in.) for linen closets and such.

costs more.

Standard exterior doors are 3 ft. wide, though

INTERIOR VS. EXTERIOR . Exterior doors are

side doors are sometimes 2 ft. 8 in. or 2 ft. 10 in.

generally thicker (13⁄4 in. vs. 13⁄8 in.), more expen-

wide. Extrawide 42-in. exterior doors can be special

sive, more weather resistant, and more secure than

ordered but their greater weight and width requires

interior doors. Exterior doors may have water- or

larger hinges and a greater area of free space when

UV-resistant finishes and often are insulated and

they swing open.

D O O R S A N D W I N D O W S 239

SAFE LANDINGS

Doors should have a landing at

least 3 ft. sq. A door swinging over a step is a

potential safety hazard. Many garage and base-

ment stairs were constructed in this manner be-

fore the practice was prohibited. It is sometimes

possible to reverse the direction of the door

swing or to install a landing and steps to replace

existing steps. If you expect visitors, such as

guests or potential buyers, it’s a good idea to

put a large sign on the door saying something

like “Caution! Step down.”

If you suspect that a door height is substandard,

always measure. Interior and exterior doors must be

at least 6 ft. 8 in. high.

HEIGHT. Standard door height on newer houses

Interior locksets are almost always some kind

is 6 ft. 8 in., for both interior and exterior doors.

of cylinder lock: passage locks or latch sets on doors

Older houses (1940s and earlier) sometimes had

that don’t need to be locked and privacy locks or lock-

doors 7 ft. high, so that size is still widely available.

sets on doors that do need locking, such as bedroom

Of late, 8-ft.-high French doors are in vogue because

doors. Bathroom locks are specialized locksets with

they allow light to penetrate far into living spaces.

a bathroom-facing knob in a metal or color to match

Of course, you can special-order a door of virtually

plumbing fixtures.

any size if price is no object. Salvage yards are also

TYPES OF DOORS

excellent sources of odd-size doors.

Inspecting doors is largely limited to whether they

HARDWARE. Hollow-core or solid-wood interior

work or not. Here are types you may find.

doors up to 13⁄8 in. thick can be supported by two

HINGED SINGLE DOORS are what typically come

31⁄2-in. by 31⁄2 -in. (opened size) hinges; whereas

to mind when we think of doors, and they are by far

13⁄4-in.-thick exterior doors usually require three 4-in.

the most common type, but their biggest drawback is

by 4-in. hinges. Extraheavy exterior doors may need

that they need room to operate.

even bigger hinges or hinges with ball bearings or

FRENCH DOORS are a pair of hinged doors that

grease fittings. Door hardware is not typically part of

meet at a common mullion (vertical divider); both

a home inspection, but if you see a door whose hinges

doors may open or one door may be fixed. French

are obviously too small, write it up.

doors are largely glass, so they are usually installed

Exterior locksets are most often cylinder locks,

overlooking a patio or a deck, though they are some-

which require a 21⁄8-in. hole drilled through the face

times installed between rooms to maximize natural

of the door, or a mortise lock, which is housed in a

light inside. French doors require an opening that’s

rectangular mortise cut into the latch edge of the

twice the size of a single door, so the header must be

door. Mortise locks are more expensive and difficult

considerably larger and greater carpentry skills are

to install, so they are most often used only on entry

required to make both doors fit the frame exactly.

doors. For added security, exterior door locksets can

Consequently, French door installations often need

be supplemented with a dead bolt and a reinforced

periodic fine-tuning.

strike plate.

240 DOORS AND WINDOWS

SLIDING DOORS are a smart choice when space

is tight and a hinged door’s swing would eat up too

much interior or exterior living space. Most slid-

ing door sets (one door slides, one is fixed) glide on

roller-wheels confined by an integral channel. Here

again, sizing the header correctly is essential because

the rough opening is so wide. If the header is not

large enough and adequately supported, it will sag

and bind the doors. Similarly, the bottom channel

must be as flat as possible if the wheels are to roll

freely. The channel must also be cleaned periodically

of debris, ice, and anything else that would impede

the wheels.

The horizontal slats in these bifold doors allow closet

OVERHANG SLIDING DOORS are high rollers:

ventilation. Louvers (slats) should slope downward

their wheels glide along a track mounted across the

so closet contents are not readily visible; these doors

were installed upside down.

top of an opening. The rolling mechanism is usually

called barn door hardware because it was first widely

used on barns and farm outbuildings. Ironically,

TROUBLESHOOTING HINGED DOORS

most barn door hardware used in residences is now

An inspector is obligated to note only if a door works

used to hang interior doors because overhang sliding

or doesn’t. But, should a client ask, here are a few

doors don’t offer much of a seal against weather.

concise explanations about the causes of common

(Those models that do are very expensive.)

door problems.

POCKET DOORS slide into interior wall cavi-

DOOR BINDS AGAINST TOP OF THE LATCH

ties specially framed to receive them; such walls are

JAMB or scrapes the floor. Most likely, the top hinge typically 6 in. thick. Older pocket doors typically had

is loose, allowing the door to sag into the opening.

wheels above, which rolled along a track mounted

Replace top hinge screws with longer ones.

to the underside of a header. Other pocket doors

DOOR BINDS ALONG THE LATCH JAMB but

had both overhang wheels and floor channels. Early

hinges are screwed tightly. The hinge is probably

pocket doors worked fine till the house shifted

bent; hinge-leaf “knuckles” (that receive hinge pins)

enough to bind them, after which their faces became

should be bent back into the original position.

scuffed each time they rubbed against wall cavities.

BIG GAPS ALONG THE HINGE JAMB while the

If the binding worsened, homeowners either had

door binds on the latch jamb; hinges are screwed

to rebuild the wall to free the doors or stop using

down tightly. Hinge leaves are not mortised deeply

them. Modern pocket doors tend to be hollow, much

enough into the frame and/or door.

lighter, and less likely to bind.

DOOR BINDS ALONG THE HINGE JAMB.

BIFOLD DOORS (accordion doors) have multiple

Hinge leaves are set too deep. The hinges should be

hinged-folds, so they can span wide distances while

removed, shimmed up, and reattached.

needing little room to operate. Because bifolds are

FLOOR IS ABRADED UNDER THE DOOR . This

rather lightweight, however, they are limited mostly

is usually caused by seasonal shifting. As expansive

to utility uses indoors, such as hiding a washer and

clay soil dries and subsides, undersize footings sub-

dryer, covering a storage area, or temporarily divid-

side with it, leaving a girder and the flooring over it

ing living spaces for visual privacy.

higher than surrounding supports. The door scrapes

on this high point.

D O O R S A N D W I N D O W S 241

As houses settle or shift, portions of the flooring may

Hollow-core interior doors should never be used as

lift relative to door framing, causing the door to scrape exterior doors. They aren’t insulated and simply can’t

on the floor.

take the weathering.

DOOR BINDS BECAUSE FRAME IS RACKED

DOOR FACE IS ABRADED, door is difficult to

(out of square). This situation is caused by seasonal

operate. Either the door has fallen off the track or,

shifting or a settling foundation and there may be

due to structural shifting, a stud has bowed into the

no easy fix. It is possible to trim the door to fit the

pocket. If lifting the door onto the track doesn’t solve

skewed opening, but if the racking is seasonal, the

the problem, it may be necessary to plane down or

frame may return to square and the trimmed door

replace the errant stud.

won’t fit. Alternately, one can replace the old frame

with a new prehung door.

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

DOOR SHUTS BUT WON’T LATCH. The strike

■

■

Survey the house for doors that do not operate

plate is misaligned and needs to be raised or lowered.

correctly. Note any that are difficult to operate,

that don’t shut fully, that scrape floors, or that

TROUBLESHOOTING SLIDING DOORS

don’t move at all.

The following explanations should hold true for most

■

■

Note door damage such as delamination, dents,

sliding and pocket doors.

water damage, and abraded faces and missing

DOOR SLIDES ROUGHLY. Dirt buildup on the

or broken elements such as door handles, glass

panes, and trim pieces.

floor needs to be vacuumed periodically.

■

■

Note obviously substandard conditions, such as

FLOOR IS ABRADED UNDER THE DOOR . The

interior doors used as exterior doors.

top track is sagging or (more likely) the top-mounted

■

■

Note any doors whose width or height do not

rolling mechanism needs some adjustment.

meet modern building code. Doors should be at

DOOR DOES NOT SLIDE AT ALL or is very hard

least 6 ft. 8 in. high and exterior doors should be

to operate. The door has come off its track. If it is a

at least 36 in. wide.

bottom track, lift the door back onto it. If a top track,

■

■

Are all door faces and edges sealed? Use a small

trim may need to be removed to gain access and set

mirror to examine bottom door edges.

■

■

tracking wheels back onto the overhead track.

Do all doors shut solidly in their frames or can

they be rattled? Do all lock mechanisms work,

DOOR DRAGS, BALKING REPEATEDLY, wheels

whether a door is interior or exterior?

squeal. Most likely, the wheels are not turning freely;

they may be rusty or the track is bent or broken.

242 DOORS AND WINDOWS

Exterior Doors

Because exterior doors must withstand extreme fluc-

tuations of moisture and temperature, two factors are

ARE ALL EDGES SEALED?

critical to determine how well a door will function

and how long it will last.

Exterior doors should be sealed with a

The first factor is whether the door is protected by

UV- and water-resistant finish; at the very least, they

a porch roof or eaves. As a rule of thumb, an overhang

should be primed or sealed on all six sides. When

should project out from the house an amount equal to

inspecting new wooden doors, slip a mirror under a

at least half the distance from the doorsill to the un-

door’s bottom edge to see if it was painted; often that

derside of a porch roof or eaves. So as you inspect each

edge is unpainted and thus will absorb moisture.

exterior door, take note of the overhang protecting it,

if any. That degree of protection determines what ma-

terial the door should be made of—the second factor.

If an overhang projection obeys the rule of thumb,

a wood exterior door beneath it can survive the in-

sults of a harsh climate. If the depth of the overhang

is less than that, or if there is no overhang, a fiber-

glass or steel door may be a more durable choice for

that location.

ENTRY DOOR ESSENTIALS

To assess the condition of an entry door, a home

inspector should know a little about its construction.

Any entry door is a trade-off of durability, main-

tenance, energy efficiency, and price. Ironically, a

cheap, leaky entry door will cost homeowners the

most in the long run.

Newly installed doors are sometimes left unpainted

along the edges. This is a common omission when

WOOD. Quality wood doors feature panel-and-

houses are remodeled or fixed up for resale.

frame construction, with mortise-and-tenon joints

at the corners for greater durability. Traditionally,

panels have floated free within the frame to allow for

Energy profile: Not great. On average, wood

expansion and contraction; today’s energy-efficient

doors have an R-2 value, though more efficient ones

models add elastic sealants around the perimeter

achieve R-5. Interestingly, doors with low-emissivity

of the panel to cut air leaks and moisture penetra-

(low-e) glass have higher R-values than wood doors

tion. To minimize warping, many panel doors have

without glazing.

engineered wood cores. Wood doors can be clear

FIBERGLASS. Spurred by energy efficiency, fiber-

finished, stained, or painted, but a factory finish with

glass doors have been gaining market share for the

an exterior grade, oil-based varnish or polyurethane

last decade. Typically, fiberglass skins are applied to

with UV protection will be most durable. Whatever

a wood composite, LVL, or steel frame to lend rigid-

the finish, however, wood doors should be refinished

ity; the core of the door is then filled with insulating

every 1 year to 3 years. Whether sealing a wood door

foam. Fiberglass doors are dimensionally stable and

for the first time or refinishing it later on, all edges surprisingly sturdy. Once painted, they are almost

must be sealed to forestall water absorption.

indistinguishable from wood, and several manu-

D O O R S A N D W I N D O W S 243

facturers offer unfinished fiberglass doors that can

be stained. As with wood, though, the most durable

coatings are factory finished.

Energy profile: Among the best for doors, R-8

or higher. As fiberglass expands and contracts at the

same rate as glass, glazing seals are especially stable

in such doors.

STEEL. Economical but unexciting, steel entry

doors are nonetheless durable, energy-efficient, and

easy to maintain. Most residential steel doors are

made from 24-gauge steel skins over an engineered-

wood or steel frame; internal cavities are filled with

expanding foam, usually polyurethane. Steel doors

This sliding exterior door opens directly onto a deck

are sometimes required by code for multifamily

unprotected by an overhang. Splashback from the

houses, where there’s a shared wall between liv-

deck, failed seals, and a lack of maintenance have

ing space and an active garage, or where houses are

resulted in a rotted threshold and damaged wood

flooring.

located in a fire zone. In those cases, codes also will

specify the core insulation, the thickness of the steel

skin, and so on. Steel doors need repainting less

In older houses, gaps frequently develop between

often—every 3 years to 5 years—and if the steel skin

door trim and wood siding because of normal

begins to rust, it can go fast.

shrinkage and wear. Inspectors should note such

Energy profile: Not quite as good as fiberglass,

gaps and recommend that they be filled with an

but close. Some models hit R-5 or R-6.

elastomeric caulk and then painted to prolong the

life of the caulk.

FLASHING AND CAULKING DOOR TRIM

This section summarizes the lengthy discussion in

WEATHER STRIPPING AND THRESHOLDS

Chapter 2 because its importance can’t be overstated.

Quality door systems will have integral weather strip-

Correctly flashing door units (doors and frames) and

ping, which fits into a kerf (slot) milled into the door

sealing gaps where siding meets trim are essential to

frame. Integral systems have close tolerances, tight

keep out water and minimize air infiltration.

fits, and nylon-jacketed foam stripping that can be

In new construction, water-resistive barriers are

compressed repeatedly without deforming or losing

usually installed before window and door units

its resilience. This type of weather stripping is often

have been inserted into rough openings. Windows

called Q-LON®, after a popular brand. In general,

and doors are then installed and their perimeters

weather seals held in place by an adhesive aren’t as

weather-proofed with flexible flashing strips. As

durable and can migrate out of position.

shown in “Flashing Details" on p. 30, the uppermost Weather stripping at the bottom of a door must cre-WRB layer overlays rigid cap flashing. Cap flashing,

ate a tight seal and be durable; elements that attach

also called head flashing, redirects water that might

to door bottoms are called shoes or sweeps. Though

otherwise dam up behind door or window head cas-

primarily intended to reduce drafts, they also must

ing, leading to stains and mold on interior surfaces,

resist water seeping or blowing in under the door.

swollen sashes, peeling paint, and rot. All flashing is

Sweep gaskets seal the bottom of a door, typically

important, but flashing the head of a window or door

with a compressible neoprene gasket in a metal

is the critical detail to get right.

channel. The sweep also may be mated to a gasketed

244 DOORS AND WINDOWS

A WATER-RETURN THRESHOLD

In regions that get a lot

of precipitation, especially driving

Door

rains, homeowners are well advised

Integral doorstop

to retrofit a water-return threshold,

rabbeted into jamb

Drip bar

which includes a sill cover, a drain

pain, and a threshold with weep

Metal door

holes. The assembly is sloped to

shoe

send water back outside, hence its

name, water return. (The sill cover

Vinyl seal

needs to slope only 1⁄8 in. to shed

(insert)

water effectively.) In addition to

protecting the door bottom and

Threshold

the doorsill, the unit goes a long

way toward protecting interior

flooring, too.

Weep holes

Drain pan

Sill cover

Old threshold

Silicone caulk

(three beads)

This three-piece threshold fits over an existing threshold and can withstand just about anything short of Noah’s Flood.

For success, carefully fit and caulk the unit’s pieces.

channel in a threshold. Better-quality sweeps are

that seal the doorsill. Thresholds may attach directly

adjustable and have replaceable gaskets because they

to an existing sill or it may be part of a sill–threshold become abraded in time. In general, avoid bristle-combination. If a sill is badly water damaged, a home

type sweeps—they don’t block air or water well and

inspector might suggest replacing it with a sill–

aren’t durable.

threshold combination. If the sill is nonstandard,

In addition to door shoes and sweeps, there are

homeowners can take photos to show to the supplier

also thresholds, specialized weather-stripping pieces

at their home center. How much rain an area gets is

D O O R S A N D W I N D O W S 245

also a key consideration. The sill–threshold combina-

HINGES. Prehung doors from a reputable supplier

tion shown in "A Water-Return Threshold" on

should have hinges matched to the weight and width

p. 245 fits over an existing sill, includes a sill cover of the door; width is a lesser consideration but wider

and a drain pan, and can withstand just about any-

doors do exert more torque on hinges as they swing.

thing short of Noah’s flood.

Modestly priced exterior doors usually come with stan-

dard 4-in. by 4-in. butt hinges. If an entry door is over-ENTRY DOOR HARDWARE

size or wood (which tends to be heavier than fiberglass

Apart from finishes, styles, and other aesthetic

or steel doors), 41⁄2 -in. or 5-in. ball-bearing hinges

considerations, entry door hardware choices can be

provide an extra margin of strength. A home-owner

boiled down to a few essential differences between

can also specify adjustable hinges, which are mor-

hinges and lock assemblies.

tised into the edge of the door and can accommodate

vertical and horizontal adjustments—rather like the

German hinges used in good-quality cabinets. Adjust-

able hinges seem like a good idea for houses subject to

seasonal shifting, such as those built on adobe soil.

LOCK ASSEMBLIES. Most exterior doors sport a

INSIDE KEY LOCKS

single-point lock that lodges into a plate on the latch

side of the door frame. For a modest bump in price,

Deadbolts and other locks with

homeowners can add a dead bolt and a reinforced

removable inside keys could prevent escape in a

strike plate, which can’t be dislodged by a kick—the

fire emergency should the key be elsewhere. Thus

inside key locks are prohibited in many locales.

preferred method of entry by B&E men. Beyond that,

Always leave inside keys in the locks when the

one enters the world of multipoint locking systems

building is occupied. Consider replacing inside key

that secure two more sides of the entry door to the

locks with thumb latches, which are safer.

door frame; some designs seem inspired by the

mechanisms used to lock bank vaults. With multi-

point locking systems priced at $2,000 and up—way

up—owning a bank might be a prerequisite for

purchasing them.

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

■

■

Is every exterior door protected by a porch or by

overhanging eaves?

■

■

What material is each exterior door made of:

wood, fiberglass, or steel? What is each door’s

general condition? Note any that are badly

weathered or damaged.

■

■

Scanning the perimeter of the door when shut,

can you see any daylight between the door and

Installing an inside key deadbolt won’t make you safer;

the frame? Running your hand around the perim-

it will just shatter the jamb when a burglar kicks in the eter, can you feel drafts?

door. This flimsy lock should be replaced with a 3-in.

deadbolt and strike-plate reinforcement that will keep

■

■

Open exterior doors and look for weather strip-

the door frame intact.

ping around door frames. Is there weather strip-

ping on the bottom of exterior doors or across

doorsills?

246 DOORS AND WINDOWS

Windows

Unlike doors, windows rarely have overhangs to pro-

tect them (beyond eaves), so they are exposed more

STORM DOORS

and sooner damaged, especially on south-facing

walls. There, the quality of a window, the skill of its

Unless they are insulated, exterior

installation, and the regularity of its maintenance are

doors in cold climates should have companion

revealed dramatically.

storm doors to reduce heat loss and air infiltra-

tion. Most modern houses have combination

screen and storm doors whose inset screen or

WINDOW STYLES

glass panel can be easily changed. If the inspec-

An inspector’s chief concern is that a window be in

tion takes place during the warm months, ask

good, operable condition, free from damage or

the homeowner(s) where the storm panel is

decay, with all glazing and seals intact. Seals that

stored so that you can assess its condition. Also

note the condition of the storm door: Inexpen-

have failed will admit moisture between double- or

sive combo doors are often made of lightweight

triple-pane units, and look cloudy. Any of the window

metal, which tends to separate at the corners.

styles in the following list may have single, double,

or triple glazing.

DOUBLE-HUNG windows are the traditional

choice, with two sashes that slide up and down; if the

top sash is fixed, it’s a single-hung.

Pros: The widest choice of sash patterns, from

■■ Are any door frames obviously out of square? Do

single pane to tiny four-over-four arrays separated by

their doors bind?

delicate frame muntins. Snap-in muntins enable af-

■■ Note water damage to the doorsill or finish floors

near the doorway. Is the damage superficial or is

fordable double-glazing and easier cleaning, but they

the wood splitting?

won’t fool an experienced eye.

Cons: Sliding sashes are tough to weatherproof

■■ Can you see water stains on interior surfaces

around the door? The door’s cap flashing may

well and old sashes rattle and leak air; if sash ropes

be damaged (or missing), or there may be gaps

break, windows cease to function reliably. Meeting

between siding and exterior door trim.

■■ Are there any signs of condensation or water

damage around metal sliding doors?

■■ Are any of the exterior door frames racked

because of structural movement or settling? If

frames seem out of square, look for signs of the

door binding, door glass cracking, and so on.

■■ Do all doors swing freely, regardless of their

width or weight?

■■ Do door locks align with strike plates on the latch

side of the frame? Do all door locks turn freely or

do any stick?

■■ Note any doors that have key locks on the inside;

recommend that they be replaced so that occu-

pants can always escape easily in an emergency.

■■ Do all exterior doors have companion storm

Windows take a lot of abuse. Swollen, weather-worn

doors or storm insets for combination screen–

sashes of double-hung windows frequently separate at

storm units?

the corners when homeowners try to force windows open.

D O O R S A N D W I N D O W S 247

WINDOW STYLES

Double Hung

Casement

Tilt and Turn

Fixed

Horizontal Slider

Hopper

Awning

rails between the sashes have two faces exposed to

outside air, which hastens heat loss, convection, and

condensation. And only half the window area offers

ventilation.

CASEMENT windows are side hinged and swing

outward, usually operated by a crank.

Pros: A single large pane of glass maximizes solar gain, a tight compression seal minimizes air leaks,

and the whole area ventilates when open. Excellent

choice for egress.

Cons: A casement opening onto a deck or walkway

is hazardous to those walking by.

AWNING windows are hinged at the top, the bot-

Children can fall out of open casement windows posi-

tom swings outward.

tioned too low. A restraining bar or chain that keeps the opening less than 4 in. wide is a good safety precaution.

248 DOORS AND WINDOWS

WINDOW FRAME MATERIALS

FRAME

MATERIAL

DURABILITY

INSULATING

LEVEL

MAINTENANCE

COST

COLORS

COMMENTS

Most conductive

ALUMINUM

Good

Poor

Low

$

Limited

of cold, but OK in

mild climates

$$–

Need painting

WOOD

Fair

Good

High

$$$

Paintable

every 10 years,

cleaning

Custom

As attractive as

CLAD

Good

Best

Low

$$$$

colors

wood, but easy to

cost

maintain; choice

extra

of claddings

Vinyl degrades

VINYL

Fair

Fair to good

Low

$

Limited

if overheated;

otherwise, it’s

durable

Least conductive,

FIBERGLASS

Good

Good

Low

$$$

Paintable

can also be

insulated with

foam*

* Fiberglass’s rate of expansion and contraction is virtually the same as that of glass, which helps glazing seals last longer.

Pros: A single large pane of glass maximizes solar Pros: Great choice for egress and because there

gain, and you can leave the window open for ventila-

are no muntins, good solar gain.

tion even when it’s raining; the window acts as an

Cons: Sliding sashes are tough to weather strip,

awning. Tight compression seal like a casement.

crud collecting in tracks can impede operation, and

Cons: A sash that swings onto a deck or walkway

only half of a window’s area offers ventilation.

is hazardous; the screen is on the inside.

FIXED windows don’t open.

HOPPER windows, which tilt from the bottom,

Pros: Can’t be beat for being airtight, less expen-are like upside-down awning windows.

sive than operable window of same design. With

Pros: Same energy profile and compression seal

acoustic glazing, best choice to reduce outside noise.

as casement and awning windows.

Cons: No ventilation, no egress, can’t wash out-

Cons: Hazardous if it swings down at head height,

side from inside.

poor choice for egress.

TILT-AND-TURN windows are hybrids that swing

WINDOW FRAMES

like a casement or bottom-tilt like a hopper.

“Window Frame Materials,” above, is intended to

Pros: Easy to clean, good choice for an egress,

aid home inspectors when discussing replacement

tight compression seal, good energy profile.

options with clients. Windows are expensive and

Cons: Two moving parts mean two things that can

would-be buyers or homeowners who must replace

break or jam. Roller shades and curtains can interfere

many units are looking at a major expense.

with the window’s operation.

In the last few decades, there have been so many

HORIZONTAL SLIDE windows are like miniature

improvements in insulated glass that the R-value of

patio doors, sashes slide in tracks.

the glazing generally exceeds that of the frames.

D O O R S A N D W I N D O W S 249

In other words, windows with a larger percentage of

WINDOW GLAZING

glass (and a smaller percentage of frame) are better

Glazing is best thought of as a system of glass panes,

energy performers. In response, window makers are

seals, gases that insulate between panes, specialty

hustling to make window frames less conductive (of

coatings to enhance or reduce solar gains, and so

heat and cold), more airtight, and more durable. To

forth. Of course, the inspector must focus on what is

do so, they have developed frames with a wide range

observable: the condition of frames, panes, and seals.

of core materials, cladding, finishes, and in some

NOTE CRACKED OR BROKEN GLASS on your

cases, insulation.

report, but if glass cracking is widespread, consider

The chart on p. 249 will give buyers an overview what might be causing it and why it appears where it

of how different frame materials perform but, to be

does. If structural shifting or foundation failure is

honest, the best way to select a window is to choose

the cause, window frames and trim will likely be out

a frame style that fits the house, calculate the energy

of square and tilting. Single-pane windows are typi-

performance the window must deliver (hence the

cally glazed with putty, which dries out if not kept

type of glazing, etc.), and then talk to builders and

painted, allowing panes to rattle in their frames and

building-supply staffers about which window brands

leak air.

they favor. Try opening and shutting display models

CONDENSATION BETWEEN PANES occurs

to see how tightly they fit, how smoothly they oper-

when seals have worn out and moisture enters. Seals

ate, and how sturdy they feel. Frame corners, glazing

failing after 15 years to 20 years is common, although

seals, and weather-stripping gaskets deserve close

it can occur after 2 years or 3 years if window manu-

scrutiny, for that’s where windows fail first.

facture is faulty. Because most of a house’s windows

“You get what you pay for” is especially true when

typically come from one supplier, when seals do fail,

buying windows. Even frames fabricated from less

they tend to do so on many windows in a short period

expensive materials, such as vinyl, offer options such

of time. It is generally not possible to repair windows

as chambers filled with foam insulation, which raise

whose seals have failed; they must be replaced.

performance and cost.

METAL WINDOWS

Metal is a superb conductor of heat and

cold but a lousy insulator, so windows with metal frames

have the lowest R-values. Ambient moisture condenses

on cold metal frames, resulting in chronic water stains

and, in time, compromised drywall surfaces under

windows. Aluminum also corrodes. Insulated, clad-steel

windows are a better choice for those who must have

the narrow profile of metal windows, but the windows’

performance is only marginally better, considering the

expense. Metal windows, even insulated, don’t offer

much of a thermal break to reduce conductive heat loss.

Metal-frame windows conduct cold, which leads to

condensation, water stains, crumbling drywall, and

damaged flooring.

250 DOORS AND WINDOWS

Windows at the bottom of staircases must contain

Failed glazing putty on wood-framed windows is

tempered glass, because someone falling down the

common in older houses. Putty needs to be repaired

stairs could land against the window.

as necessary and kept painted.

While few codes require changing existing glass,

tempered glass is required when panes are replaced

in such areas. Until tempered glass is installed,

homeowners can reduce risk by moving furniture to

direct traffic away from nontempered glass win-

dows and by applying decals to sliding glass doors

and large windows to prevent people from walking

through them. Special plastic films can be applied to

the glass to reduce the likelihood of injury should the

glass break.

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

■

■

What style(s) of windows are presently on the

house? Note the overall condition of each unit

and try to determine the frame material of each

Because of failed seals, moist air has seeped between

window.

the doubled panes of this sash, fogging it up. It’s not

■

■

Can all windows be opened and shut easily? Note

possible to repair seals, the sash needs to be replaced.

missing hardware or operating mechanisms (such

as casement cranks) that are balky or do not

work at all.

TEMPERED GLASS (safety glass) is required in

■

■

When closed, do all window sashes fit tightly to

new construction when a window is less than 18 in.

their frames?

from the floor (and larger than 9 sq. ft.), adjacent to a

■

■

Note the location and condition of any metal-

door, or in a door. Low windows by walkways should

frame windows. Is there condensation, water

also have tempered glass and so should windows

stains, or water-related damage on the trim or

wall surfaces around those windows?

at the bottoms of stairways, a common location for

trips and falls.

D O O R S A N D W I N D O W S 251

■■ Note cracked or broken panes, and panes whose

contact absorbs yet more water, and forcing swollen

putty is worn or dislodged.

sashes to move soon takes its toll on sash frames;

■■ Is there condensation or cloudiness between any

corner joints go first. When inspecting wood double-

double- or triple-pane units? If so, their seals

hungs, scrutinize sash corners and, above all, the

have failed and the units will have to be replaced.

bottom sash–windowsill juncture, which is where rot

■■ Do windows within 18 in. of the floor, adjacent to

usually starts.

doors, along walkways, or at the bottom of stair-

Even when they slide freely in their frames,

cases contain tempered glass?

double-hung sashes are pretty heavy and require sash

■■ Are egress windows large enough for an inhab-

weights to counterbalance the weight of the sash.

itant to exit or a firefighter to enter (net-clear

opening of 5.7 sq. ft.), and low enough to climb

But sash cords break, people don’t replace them, and

out of (maximum 44 in. above the floor)?

sashes are used less and less. Then, at some point

they get painted shut. A sitting sash (wood on wood

DOUBLE-HUNG WINDOWS

again) often rots, so note on your report both broken

Double-hungs are by far the most common style of

sash cords and windows painted shut. If there’s not a

window, especially on older homes, but wood sashes

rot problem now, there soon will be.

sliding in a wood frame is a pretty archaic technol-

THE MOST COMMON REMEDIAL STRATEGY

ogy, especially when vinyl, fiberglass, and clad sashes

for homeowners with a houseful of weary wooden

are available. Wood absorbs water—it’s what trees

double-hungs is removing old sashes, cleaning up

are designed to do—so, consequently wood sashes

and perhaps insulating around the frame, inserting

swell in their frames. That wood-against-wood

new channels (vinyl jamb liners) in the frame, then

WINDOW EGRESS

To enable occupants to exit quickly in

case of a fire, building codes require a method of

escape—egress—for sleeping rooms on every level of

the house, including the basement. Because egress

windows must also be large enough to allow a fully

equipped firefighter to enter, codes specify the size of

the egress—typically, at least 20 in. wide and at least

24 in. tall, with a combined net-clear opening of

5.7 sq. ft. To make it possible to climb out of an egress window, codes generally specify a maximum sill height

of 44 in. above the floor,

If an egress window has security bars, they must

have a release mechanism that is operable from the

inside without a key or special tool. Interior release

Sash cords often come loose or break, making a

mechanisms should be tested periodically to be sure

weighty sash difficult to raise. It is usually necessary to they are functional.

remove jamb trim and the sash itself to reattach cords

to sash weights.

252 DOORS AND WINDOWS

STORM WINDOWS AND SCREENS

Within recent memory (for some of us) ,

storm windows used to be glazed sashes that were

put up every fall and taken down every spring, to be

replaced with screened sashes. Storm sashes were

replaced with combination storm and screen panels

that were both housed in a metal frame on the outside

of the window frame; the appropriate panel being slid

up or down as seasons turned. Note the condition and

operability of all combo panels and the existence (or

not) of separate glazed or screen sashes. Apart from

torn screens and cracked glass, the most common dam-

The moving parts of hinged windows need occasional

age is that combo frames, which are often aluminum,

maintenance. Here, recurrent condensation has rusted

corrode.

a casement window’s cranking mechanism and dam-

aged the wooden windowsill.

installing new replacement sashes. Window trim in-

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

side and out stays put, drafts are reduced, and sashes

slide nicely.

■

■

Are double-hung windows operable or painted

shut? If they are operable, are sash cords con-

HINGED WINDOWS

nected to sash weights. (Sashes that are propped

up usually have broken sash cords.)

Hinged windows include casement, awning, hopper,

louvered, and tilt-and-turn styles. Because hinged

■

■

Survey double-hung windows for rot where the

bottom rails of lower sashes rest on windowsills,

windows are generally newer than double-hungs,

where upper and lower sashes meet, and along

they are less likely to be wood on wood and thus less

frame channels.

likely to swell shut in their frames. Operate them to

■

■

Note windows with replacement sashes: Do they

be sure they work.

operate freely or do they bind?

When inspecting hinged windows, be on the look-

■

■

Do hinged windows fit tight to frames? Is all

out for crank mechanisms that are corroded because

hardware present and operable?

of condensation collecting along the sill, defective or

■

■

Does every window have a storm sash or panel?

missing latches, sashes that do not fit snugly in the

Are window screens intact?

frame, and missing seals or weather stripping around

■

■

If an egress window has security bars, is there an

interior release mechanism that can be opened

the frame.

without a key or special tool? Test the release

mechanism to see if it opens.

D O O R S A N D W I N D O W S 253

CHAPTER 12

KITCHENS,

BATHROOMS,

and LAUNDRY

KITCHENS AND BATHROOMS ARE THE ROOMS where

it all converges: electrical and plumbing, heating outlets and pipes, fixtures and finish surfaces of all kinds. In addition, there’s lots of water and water vapor generated by the people using these rooms, so adequate ventilation is a must for anyone who wants to forestall mold and enjoy a

healthier indoors.

To protect a household from electrical shocks, all bath-

room and kitchen receptacles within 4 ft. of a sink must

be ground fault circuit interrupters, or whatever the local building code requires. Finally, maintenance is crucial to keep water at bay: keeping tub, sink, and lavatory joints caulked; replacing tile grout if it gets crumbly; and attending to leaking fixtures immediately. The same rules

hold true for laundry setups.

254 KITCHENS, BATHROOMS, AND LAUNDRY

Kitchens

Because safety is always top of mind for a home in-

spector, let’s start with an encapsulation of electrical

A SAFE DISTANCE ABOVE

safety in the kitchen.

A SUMMARY OF NEC REQUIREMENTS

The bottom of a wall cabinet should

GFCIs are sensitive devices that can detect very small

be at least 30 in. above the top of a range or a cook-

top. That height is essential because of the potential

current leaks and shut off power almost instanta-

fire hazard of a combustible cabinet over a heat

neously. The NEC requires that all kitchen outlets be

source, but it also gives a cook enough room to heft

GFCI protected. Kitchen appliances are heavy power

a large pot up onto a burner; 30 in. is also the optimal

users, so their circuits must be sized accordingly.

height of a range hood over a range or cooktop. Wall

cabinets over countertop areas without cooking ap-

There must be at least two 20-amp small-appliance

pliances need at least 18 in. clearance.

circuits in the kitchen serving kitchen countertops.

No point along a kitchen countertop may be more

than 2 ft. from an outlet; in other words, countertop

receptacles should be spaced at least every 4 ft. Every

counter at least 12 in. wide must have a receptacle.

is a separate unit or part of a light/fan. Laundry room

All critical-use and fixed appliances should, and in

receptacles must be on a dedicated circuit; so must an

most cases must, have their own dedicated (sepa-

electric clothes dryer.

rate) circuits. These fixed appliances include freezer,

NOTE : Major appliances on dedicated circuits, such refrigerator, oven, cooktop, microwave, water pump,

as refrigerators and freezers, should not be plugged

water heater, furnace and/or whole-house air-condi-

into a GFCI receptacle. Appliances with large motors

tioning unit, and window air conditioners. A bath-

may cause nuisance tripping of GFCIs because those

room heater requires a dedicated circuit, whether it

motors typically have large starting loads.

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

■■ The bottom of wall cabinets should be at least

30 in. above ranges and cooktops and at least

18 in. above noncooking portions of countertops.

Measure to be sure.

■■ Check the breaker panel (or fuse panel) to ascer-

tain that there at least two 20-amp small-

appliance circuits serving kitchen countertops.

■■ Are countertop receptacles spaced at least every

4 ft., and does every countertop at least 2 ft.

wide have a receptacle?

■■ Do lights dim or flicker when a refrigerator, wash-

ing machine, or a microwave starts?

RANGES, OVENS, AND COOKTOPS

First, a few definitions: The enclosed cooking area in

which one roasts a turkey is an oven; pots and frying pans sit on cooktop burners. A range has both an oven What’s missing here? Along counters, there should be

an electrical outlet at least every 4 ft.

and a cooktop.

255

FLICKERING LIGHTS

In older homes where the wiring has

not been upgraded, kitchen lights may flicker or dim

when a refrigerator or washing machine motor starts

up, or a fuse may blow. Such circuits should be re-

wired because flickering lights indicate an overloaded

circuit. Each critical-use and fixed appliance should

be on its own dedicated circuit.

This built-in oven is coming loose from the cabinet

and should be properly secured. Freestanding ranges

Cooking appliances, whether gas or electric, should

should also have anti-tip brackets. Unsecured, they

be professionally installed. The heating elements

can fall if the door is left open and a large pot of stew or other heavy object is placed on them.

of ranges, ovens, and cooktops generally require

240 volts, but today’s smart appliances come with a

plethora of timers, clocks, sensors, buzzers, and other

in which they are housed. Otherwise, if an oven door

gizmos that use 120 volts. For this reason, many units

were left open and a heavy pot of stew placed on the

require 120-volt/240-volt wiring, with two hot wires,

door, the built-in oven could pitch forward and fall,

an insulated neutral, and an equipment ground wire.

probably ripping out wiring connections and possibly

Fixed appliances, as noted earlier, should be on dedi-

injuring someone. Similarly, floor-mounted ranges

cated circuits and circuit wiring should be matched to

must be provided with anti-tip brackets to keep them

the appliance’s amperage rating.

from falling over. During your inspection, ascertain

Appliances must also be securely mounted. Built-in

that ovens and ranges are securely mounted.

ovens, for example, must be secured to the cabinet

REFRIGERATORS AND FREEZERS

Refrigerators and freezers are both critical-use and

fixed appliances, so each should be on a dedicated

circuit, whose wiring is appropriately sized to the ap-

pliance’s amperage rating.

ESSENTIAL GROUNDS

These appliances rarely fail, though they require

occasional maintenance such as vacuuming to dust

All electrical appliances must have an

off condenser coils to run optimally. Refrigerators

equipment-grounding conductor that connects to

that can be rolled out for cleaning should have outlets

both the appliance frame (or housing) and to the metal

situated high enough so that the unit does not run

outlet box for the safe discharge of fault currents. Use

a circuit analyzer (see p. 146) to test each circuit for over its appliance cord.

ground and to make sure it is correctly wired. Never

Refrigerators with integral ice makers sometimes

assume an outlet is grounded just because it has three-

leak if the 1⁄4-in. flexible water supply line for the ice hole receptacles.

maker is inexpertly connected or becomes crushed.

Because these connections are typically on the back

of the refrigerator, there is little an inspector can do

256 KITCHENS, BATHROOMS, AND LAUNDRY

This disposer’s faulty wiring—with no protective clamp

Locating a disposer switch on a cabinet face is

and exposed wire connections—is a shock hazard to

extremely hazardous. If someone clearing out the

anyone who inadvertently pulls on or touches the wire.

disposer with his hand accidentally hits the switch, the

disposer could turn on.

to inspect hookups or to anticipate problems. How-

ever, if during an inspection you observe wet spots

near the base of the refrigerator or kitchen floor-

ing damaged by unexplained wetness, a leaking ice

maker connection may be the cause. Over time, small

leaks can have devastating effects.

DISHWASHERS AND DISPOSERS

Dishwashers and disposers are both 120-volt, 20-amp

appliances, supplied by 12 AWG cable. Ideally, a gar-

bage disposer will have a flexible cord that plugs into

a receptacle. Appliances that vibrate should be pro-

Some dishwashers drain through an air gap located

vided with flexible multistrand cords. Hard-wiring

above the sink. When gaps get clogged they spray

them with Romex or BX creates a potential hazard.

water on the counter when the appliance drains. Air gaps

WARNING : A disposer switch should never be

are outmoded in many jurisdictions. New dishwashers

typically have built-in antibackflow or air-gap devices.

located on a cabinet face, as shown in the top right

photo, because someone cleaning out the disposer

with his or her hand could accidentally operate the

Older dishwashers often vent through an air gap

switch, turning the disposer on.

located above the sink; the gap is typically covered by

Because they slide out for installation and main-

a chrome cap. When air gaps become clogged, water

tenance, dishwashers are also installed with a cord

may spill or squirt out of the chrome cap onto the

and plug. Most of the time, the dishwasher junction

counter when the dishwasher drains. This nuisance

box is located in the front of the unit, just behind the

can be avoided by removing blockages or kinks from

kick panel. When not pulled out for maintenance, a

the dishwasher drain hose that leads to the air gap

dishwasher must be secured to the countertop above

or by upgrading to a new dishwasher with a built-in

so the appliance does not fall forward when its door

antisyphon valve that prevents the backflow of waste

is lowered.

water into a clean dishwasher.

K I T C H E N S , B A T H RO O M S , A N D L AU N D R Y 257

SIZING A HOOD

A 100-cfm wall-mounted hood should be

adequate to vent the average four-burner, 30-in.-wide

range. But if that same range is located on a kitchen

island, its range vent should draw 125 cfm to 150 cfm.

More is not better when sizing range hoods; larger

hoods are noisier. Oversize hoods can also expel so

much air that they create backdrafting, in which nega-

tive in-house air pressure draws furnace or fireplace

exhaust gases back down the chimney.

Exposed wood cabinets should be 30 in. above heat

sources such as cooktops or range burners. A 24-in.

vertical distance is considered adequate for metal or

insulating millboard-covered wood. Follow range-

hood manufacturer's recommendations for height

RANGE HOODS

above the cooking surface.

All cooktops and stoves should be vented by a range

hood. In addition to sucking up the smoke of a

charred steak, range hoods exhaust airborne grease

that might otherwise migrate to cool corners and

feed mold. Range hoods vary but basically each has

a hood to collect smells and smoke, a fan to expel

them, and ducts to carry exhausts out.

Range hoods are most often wall-mounted directly

over a range. Alternatively, there are downdraft and

side-draft vents that pop up from a counter area to

suck away fumes. Over island and peninsula ranges,

chimney-type vents are commonly installed.

Ideally, a range hood should be slightly wider than

the range, say, 3 in. wider on each end, and mounted

Range-hood fans have filter screens to collect grease

30 in. above the range. More powerful hoods can

from frying food below. This hood and screen are so

clogged they have become a fire hazard and should be

be installed higher. Each hood should have a good-

replaced.

quality filter that can withstand regular washing with

soap and water. Most filters are aluminum mesh, bet-

to fix yet, unattended, can lead to delaminating

ter ones are stainless steel, and many can be popped

countertops or rotted base cabinets (see p. 270). So, into a dishwasher. Report clogged filters: They force

as you manipulate each faucet handle or lever to turn

fans to draw less, run longer, and fail sooner.

water off and on, note water running from its base

THE KITCHEN SINK

because of a worn washer. Are faucets worn or loose,

When inspecting a kitchen sink, keep an eye out for

or are hot and cold pipes reversed? (An amateur likely

drips, damage, and durability. Drips or leaks from

installed them.) Look under the sink for water dam-

the bottom of a sink faucet handle or lever are easy

age and, while there, note the condition of the sink

258 KITCHENS, BATHROOMS, AND LAUNDRY

SMOKE ALARMS

Smoke alarms should be installed in all

living areas, but they are not generally required in

kitchens. Having a fire extinguisher and a smoke alarm

in a kitchen seems a wise course, however, provided the

alarm can be located so that normal cooking fumes will

not nuisance trigger it. To minimize nuisance trigger-

ing, smoke alarms should be kept at least 12 ft. from

appliances such as cooktops and ovens.

Residents should test smoke alarms by pressing the

Penny wise and pound foolish. Here, a good-quality

test button as soon they move into a new property and

enameled cast-iron sink has been paired with a cheaply

again each month. Most standard batteries should be

made single-lever faucet whose washer has failed.

changed at least once a year. Batteries with a 10-year

life span are now available. Battery-powered combi-

nation carbon monoxide and smoke alarms are also

available.

drain: Is it leaking or made of an improper material

such as corrugated plastic? Does the floor below the

sink cabinet look worn or water damaged?

Damage to the sink itself includes surface chips,

cracks, rust, and dull finishes that should have been

Bathrooms

scrubbed with a nonabrasive cleanser, but weren’t.

Water reigns in the bathroom. Inspecting this com-

Durability is largely a matter of sink materials—

plicated space is an exploration of what materials

enameled cast iron is especially durable—and

were chosen and how well they were installed. It’s

maintenance.

also important to consider safety. Is there enough

light and ventilation and are all electrical outlets

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

GFCI-protected? As important, has the bathroom

been well maintained, with small leaks fixed before

■■ Ascertain that built-in ovens and dishwashers

are securely mounted to cabinets and cannot fall

they became big problems?

forward when their doors are opened.

ELECTRICAL AND LIGHTING

■■ Is the disposer switch safely located so that it

REQUIREMENTS

cannot be inadvertently switched on?

BATHROOM RECEPTACLES. GFCIs are sensitive

■■ Does water spill or squirt out of an air gap onto

the counter when the dishwasher drains?

devices that can detect very small current leaks and

shut off power almost instantaneously. All bathroom

■■ Check the range-hood filter to be sure it is

cleaned and not clogged with grease.

receptacles must be supplied by a 20-amp GFCI-

protected circuit. The NEC allows the 20-amp circuit

■■ Are faucets loose or leaking? Examine the base

cabinet under the sink for water damage.

to supply the receptacles of more than one bathroom

■■ Note countertop and sink chips, cracks, dents,

or to supply the receptacles, lights, and fans (exclud-

rust, or abrasions.

ing heating fans) in one bathroom. Receptacles in

bathrooms must be GFCI protected, either by GFCI

receptacles or by a GFCI breaker.

K I T C H E N S , B A T H RO O M S , A N D L AU N D R Y 259

In addition to being GFCI-protected, bathroom

by a GFCI-protected circuit. Because such fixtures in

receptacles (and switches) need to be located safely.

older homes are not adequately protected, the wise

Receptacles and switches should be placed beyond

course would be to remove them all.

the reach of water that could spray or splash on them

from a shower or a sink, as a rule of thumb, at least

VENTILATION

3 ft. away.

New or remodeled bathrooms must have an exhaust

BATHROOM LIGHTING. It is important to illu-

vent fan. Because fans usually need to continue

minate the face evenly in mirrors. Common practice

venting after someone leaves the room, an electronic

is to place good-quality light sources either above

switch with an integral timer will keep the fan run-

the vanity mirror or on either side of it. Recessed

ning after the light has been turned off. The fan can

light cans over the vanity provide adequate light but

be connected to a humidistat, a moisture sensor that

can be problematic because they can cast shadows

will turn off the fan when a preset moisture level is

across the face. Many jurisdictions also have energy-

reached.

efficiency requirements for lighting in bathrooms,

By reducing ambient moisture, vent fans should

including lighting and occupancy sensors.

reduce the incidence of mold. If the bath fan draws

Bathroom light fixtures with outlets in

well but mold persists along the ceiling, suspect a

their bases are not permitted in new construction.

fan whose duct ends in an unheated attic above. This

In fact, any fixture outlets should be disconnected

installation defect is surprisingly common. Fan ducts

and replaced with code-approved, three-hole GFCI-

should extend through a wall or roof to outside air.

protected outlets.

Insulating fan ducts in unheated attics will reduce

If bathroom lights dim when a hair dryer is

condensation inside the duct. If a bath fan is rusted,

used on a bathroom outlet, the circuit is inadequate

condensation may be part of the problem.

for modern usage. A bathroom needs at least one

If a bath fan continues to run but mirrors remain

20-amp circuit, with no lighting on it, for heavy users

clouded, the fan may be too small or its ducting may

such as hair dryers.

be blocked. A contractor should disconnect ducting

Metal light fixtures within a shower area

to check for blockage. If there is no blockage, the fan

are potential shock hazards and are ideally protected

should be replaced with a more powerful unit.

TESTING GFCI RECEPTACLES

Inspect all GFCI-protected receptacles.

GFCI receptacles have a test button on their face. To

test receptacles protected by a GFCI receptacle up-

stream, many inspectors insert a three-prong, ground-

fault receptacle tester and circuit analyzer. To test a

GFCI breaker, look in the breaker panel; the breaker will have a test button.

NOTE : The only UL-sanctioned test is to use the

test button built into the device, be it a GFCI outlet,

Holding a tissue near a bathroom fan is a simple way

breaker, or blank-face type.

to test its draw. The fan is supposed to draw moist air

upward into a venting system.

260 KITCHENS, BATHROOMS, AND LAUNDRY

BATH FIXTURE CLEARANCES

24 in. minimum

Ouch! In this space-starved bathroom, a glass shower

Shower stall

door makes contact with the corner of a lavatory. Both

items could be damaged if the door is opened too far,

too fast.

Lavatory

6 in. minimum

15 in.

minimum

21 in. minimum

to wall

ROOM TO MOVE SAFELY

6 in.

Bathroom space isn’t efficient if there isn’t enough

minimum

room to use the fixtures easily and safely.

21 in. minimum

to wall

Local building codes specify minimum distances

between fixtures and walls, shower stalls, cabinets,

15 in.

minimum

Toilet

and the like. “Bath Fixture Clearances” at right

reflects those minimum distances, measured from

21 in. minimum

typical drainpipe and supply pipe centers for each

to wall

fixture.

From an inspection standpoint, this is all common

sense. If you see a toilet so close to a tub that some-

one would have to sit side-saddle to use it, a shower

Tub

door that broke when it hit a sink, a lavatory that

cannot be used when a bathroom door is open, or a

6 in. minimum

shower door that swings inward, which would trap a

shower user who fell against the door, write it up.

Fixture

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

■■ Are all bathroom receptacles GFCI protected?

Bathrooms with minimal clearances are a tight fit.

■■ Are light switches and receptacles located well

If you’ve got room to spare, by all means space fixtures

away from splash or spray zones?

farther than the prescribed minimums.

■■ Can a light switch be easily reached by someone

■

■

Does the bathroom have a vent fan to expel

in a shower or tub? This could greatly increase

moisture? Do bathroom mirrors remain cloudy

the risk of electrocution.

even after the fan has run for a while?

■■ Note any light fixtures that have outlets in their

■

■

If the bath fan is rusty or if the ceiling is moldy,

base; they should be replaced.

see if the fan duct terminates in the attic.

■■ Do bathroom lights dim when a hair dryer

■

■

Is there enough room to use all bathroom fixtures

plugged into a bathroom outlet is used?

comfortably and safely?

K I T C H E N S , B A T H RO O M S , A N D L AU N D R Y 261

COMMON SHOWER AND

TUB LEAK LOCATIONS

Drop-eared 90

Shower spout

Joint often leaks.

At valve

Where spout

Valve fitting

meets nipple

in wall

The midline of a toilet should be 15 in. away from a wall or a fixture on both sides. Almost touching the tub,

this toilet would be awkward to use.

Overflow gasket

TUBS AND SHOWERS

When inspecting tubs and shower surrounds, pay

close attention to hardware penetrations in walls

Drain connection

(see “Common Shower and Tub Leak Locations” at

right), where walls adjoin a tub or shower pan, and all

supply pipe and drainpipe connections. That’s where

Slip nuts

leaks are most likely to occur.

A CRITICAL JOINT. The joint where walls meet the

Where

tailpiece

tub is prone to leak if not properly caulked. Because

meets trap

tub shoulders are flat, water collects on them. More-

over, filled tubs are heavy, so each filling causes the

tub to sink imperceptibly in relation to the framing

and finish surfaces around it. And, of course, people

using the tub or shower cause slight shifts as well.

dry. In inexpert installations, wall tiles or their grout If the tub is separate from the walls (that is, not

joints may come in contact with the tub. Note it in

a molded one-piece unit), there should be a 1⁄4-in.

your report: Even if that juncture is not cracked now,

gap between the bottoms of surrounding walls and

it will likely crack before too long as the tub moves

tub shoulders. And the gap should be sealed with

slightly. Moreover, there is not enough room for an

an elastomeric caulk such as silicone or flexible

elastomeric seal.

polyurethane to seal out water. Sealing this joint

TILED WALLS. Tile can be very beautiful and, if

and maintaining the seal is critical to keeping the

installed by a skilled artisan over a stable substrate,

framing around and the subfloor beneath the tub

very durable. Tile installed over a mud (mortar) bed

262 KITCHENS, BATHROOMS, AND LAUNDRY

Always check ceramic tile shower walls for loose tiles.

The supply pipes and drain assembly of this old

Periodic recaulking can protect critical joints where

clawfoot tub are a hodgepodge of brass, chrome,

pipes and valve stems penetrate walls, but these bulg-

galvanized steel, and copper pipes, some of which are

ing tiles suggest a failed substrate.

corroded and leaking.

or a cementitious backer board can last for decades

and be virtually maintenance-free.

Tile installed over drywall is another story.

TUBS A-POPPIN’

Drywall’s gypsum core is relatively soft, and as the

bumps of daily usage add up, the core compresses,

A popping noise when someone steps into

grout cracks, tiles loosen, moisture gets behind

a fiberglass or lightweight steel tub or shower stall is a finish surfaces, the drywall substrate crumbles, and

symptom of inadequate support. The material is flexing

mold blooms. If the bath fan isn’t properly vented, or

under the added weight. Initially, this condition is more there isn’t a fan at all, things can deteriorate pretty

of an annoyance than a problem, but in time it can

quickly.

lead to separating joints and leaks. In the short term,

caulking tub or shower-stall perimeters may keep water

This is not an inevitable process. Some tile-over-

damage at bay. Long term, it may be necessary to ex-

drywall installations last for years and look great. But

pose the framing and replace the failed shower pan, to

if an inspector sees the symptoms of a failed instal-

inject expanding spray foam, or to place a mortar bed

lation, he or she should note that walls will need to

beneath the tub to support it.

be stripped to the studs and the failed substrate will

need to be replaced before the area can be retiled or

replaced with another, more durable wall material.

TUB AND SHOWER HARDWARE. Every time

a pipe nipple or hardware stem penetrates a tub

and checked to be sure they are watertight. If the tub/

or shower surround, there’s the potential for leak-

shower’s wet wall (the wall in which pipes run) has an

age. Ideally, the workers installing wall panels over

access door, those connections and suspected leaks

roughed-in plumbing will keep wall openings small,

can be checked or repaired later on with minimal

caulk openings well, and install trim hardware (trim

fuss. But if there is no access door, leaks can persist

plates, escutcheons, etc.) to cover the hole.

for a long time before they are discovered.

In addition, before tub/shower walls are closed in,

When inspecting a tub/shower, examine hardware

supply pipes and drainpipes must be joined tightly

penetrations as best you can, lifting trim pieces or es-

to supply stems, tub drain, and overflow openings

cutcheons if you can do so easily and without break-

K I T C H E N S , B A T H RO O M S , A N D L AU N D R Y 263

This diverter valve is probably also leaking behind the

The resilient flooring around the base of this toilet is

shower wall. The faucets and valve are old and worn

deteriorating and starting to lift because of prolonged

and should be repaired or replaced.

exposure to moisture. The subflooring may be water

damaged, too.

ing seals (trim is sometimes bedded in caulk). Oper-

WATER DRIPPING FROM A CEILING BELOW

ate faucet handles and diverter valves and note any

after someone takes a shower is usually caused by

leaks around them. If there are leaks or if shutting a

a failed shower pan, eroded grout along tub–

valve does not fully stop water flowing out of the tub

wall joints, worn or missing caulk, valve stem/

spout or showerhead, valve washers may be worn and

shower-spout leaks, or leaking tub drainpipe connec-

need replacing. Are faucet handles loose? Also note if

tions. By the way, if a tub drains slowly or gurgles as

hot and cold supply pipes are reversed (the hot should

it does, it either has blocked drains or venting that is

be on the left), as this mixup indicates an inexpert

inadequate or missing.

installation.

GLASS SHOWER ENCLOSURES whose doors

NOTE TOO IF THE TUB SPOUT OR THE

leak are usually missing a plastic gasket that runs

SHOWERHEAD moves, which may be a sign that

along the bottom and edge of the door; door manu-

fixture spouts are not securely anchored to blocking

facturers have replacements. Clear plastic shower

in the wall. Short term, spout penetrations should be

panels that have become cloudy were probably

caulked so water doesn’t get into the wall. Long term,

cleaned with an abrasive cleanser or an ammoni-

movement is not a good thing because it can stress

ated one that interacted chemically with the plastic;

pipe connections and cause leaks; if other evidence of

cloudy panels can be replaced.

leaking emerges, the walls may need to be opened to

Tempered safety glass has been required in shower

re-anchor pipes to framing.

enclosures and doors since the 1960s; untempered

DETERIORATED FLOORING along the base

glass could shatter into sharp pieces if a shower user

of a tub, toilet, or shower enclosure usually indi-

fell against it. Look for a label on the glass that says

cates leaking. The edges of resilient flooring often

tempered or safety glass; if you don’t see one, assume

darken, lift, and fray, whereas ceramic tile floors

the glass is not tempered. Cracked glass panels are

may have crumbling grout and cracked or loose tiles.

probably not tempered; in any case, cracked glass

Water-stained subflooring may even be visible. If the

should be replaced.

underside of bathroom subflooring and framing are

visible in an unfinished basement below, scan them

for discoloration and rot.

264 KITCHENS, BATHROOMS, AND LAUNDRY

SHOWERED WITH SURPRISES

Shower water pressure that starts normal

but weakens within months is usually caused by a

shower-head strainer that gets clogged by rust or debris.

(This often happens when plumbing repairs dislodge

debris in the pipes.) Removing and flushing the shower-

head usually solves the problem. If a shower user gets

scalded or chilled when someone else flushes a toilet or

runs water, the supply piping is too small, or probably

old, galvanized-steel supply pipe that has become

Because of a failed gasket, this glass shower door has

constricted by rust and minerals. In new construction,

leaked and rotted the tackless strips holding the car-

both the IRC and the UPC require anti-scalding valves.

pet. (Carpet is a poor choice for moisture-prone areas

such as bathrooms.)

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

LAVATORIES

Lavatories (bathroom sinks) come in many shapes and

■■ Is there a shower only, tub only, one-piece tub

sizes. Wall-hung lavatories make good use of space

and shower unit, or separate tub and shower?

and budget, but their pipes are exposed, and there’s no

What is it (are they) made of?

place to store supplies underneath. Pedestal sinks are

■■ Are any surfaces cracked or abraded? If tub walls

typically screwed to wall framing and supported by a

are tiled, are grout joints intact? Does the tub

flex when someone steps into it? Does the tub

pedestal that hides the drainpipes. Counter-mounted

hold water?

lavatories are the most diverse and may be mounted

■■ Are tub–wall joints sealed with a bathroom-grade

over or under or may be fused to a countertop.

caulk? Is there any deterioration along joints?

Lavatory materials should be easy to clean, stain

■■ Are all wall penetrations sealed with caulk? Do

resistant, and tough enough to withstand daily use

trim pieces such as escutcheons fit tightly?

and the occasional dropped item. The most durable

■■ Is there leaking around faucet handles or diverter

lavatories are enameled cast iron. Vitreous china

valves? Does water continue to dribble out of

(porcelain) lavatories have a hard, glossy finish that’s

the showerhead or tub spout even though faucet

handles are shut tight?

easy to clean and durable, but it’s not as durable as

enameled cast iron; it can chip and crack. Solid-

■■ Note deteriorated or springy flooring along the

base of tubs or shower stalls.

surface lavatories are usually bonded to the underside

of a countertop of a similar material.

■■ Do glass shower doors leak? Are any panels

cracked or abraded?

MOUNTING CONCERNS. A lavatory’s mounting

■■ Note weak shower pressure, which may be

is rarely a problem unless some unusual stress is put

caused by clogged showerhead filters.

on it, such as an adult sitting on or a child climbing

■■ Do shower users get scalded or frozen when

onto it. Wall-mounted units are perhaps the most

someone uses another fixture? Supply pipes are

easily abused: in time, the brackets or screws holding

most often galvanized steel pipes that are con-

them to a wall can pull out and the lavatory will tilt

stricted with mineral deposits.

forward, showing a gap between the lavatory and the

wall. Missing lavatory legs also stress brackets and

K I T C H E N S , B A T H RO O M S , A N D L AU N D R Y 265

SHOWERS WITH A VIEW

Windows in showers are problematic

because water invariably swells their frames and glass

breaks. That noted, the shower windowsill should

be above the showerhead. Windows lower than that

must be periodically caulked and/or painted to limit

water damage. Installing a clear glass curtain over the

window can help prevent water entry and damage to

the wall framing below. Windows less than 5 ft. above

a shower pan or tub should be glazed with tempered

The hardest thing to see during a home inspection is

safety glass.

something that isn’t there. This lavatory is missing a

leg, making it precarious. Though partly supported by

wall brackets, the lavatory could tear loose and fall if

someone leaned too hard on its unsupported corner.

holding screws. In addition to the danger of a lava-

ing.) If a faucet chatters or vibrates as it is operated, tory falling over altogether, plumbing connections

it has worn, loose valves. (Replace stems or faucet.) A

are strained.

faucet spout that terminates below the level of a filled

Lavatories mounted to a cabinet are very stable,

sink must be replaced because waste water in the sink

although top-mounted lavatories tend to collect crud

could reverse-syphon into drinking water, contami-

around the lip of the sink and standing water can leak

nating it. (There should be a 1-in. air gap between the

under the lip if it is not caulked. Undermounted lava-

bottom of a spout and the top of a filled sink.)

tories are usually held to the underside of a counter-

NONAPPROVED SUPPLY PIPES OR DRAINS

top via clips; if clips slip or caulking fails between the usually occur when an amateur plumber gets creative

sink lip and the countertop, leaks can occur.

to save money. Occasionally an inspector will see

CRACKS AND CHIPS are not a leak problem as

flexible plastic tubing or connector as supply lines;

long as they are superficial; they can be filled or re-

this tubing tends to swell with time and some eventu-

enameled in some cases. But if the crack extends

ally leak or actually burst, causing water damage.

all the way across the bowl, and especially through

Such connections should be replaced with metal

a drain opening, it should be monitored for leaks.

sheathed burst-proof-type flexible connectors. Cor-

Enameled steel or enameled cast-iron lavatories may

rugated drainage connectors are often installed as

rust if their metal substrate is exposed; the lavatory’s

drain traps or fixture tailpieces. These materials lack

underside is the portion most likely to rust. Again,

smooth interior walls so they collect sludge, blocking

rust may not affect a lavatory’s ability to hold water.

the line. They should be replaced with conventional

WORN VALVES AND FAUCETS are perhaps the

drainage fittings and materials.

most common failing of lavatories. Water dripping

Sinks that drain slowly may have clogged drains

from a spigot after valves are shut tight is a sign of

or traps, or their drains may not be sloped enough.

worn washers. (If the washer is ceramic, the valve

(They should slope 1⁄4 in. per 1 ft.) Bathroom sinks

stem must be replaced.) Water leaks from the base

that gurgle loudly as they drain or that have lingering

of a faucet indicate a valve stem that is not seating

sewage smells have faulty venting. Most likely, when

correctly. (The valve stem or the faucet needs replac-

the toilet flushes it is sucking water from the sink

266 KITCHENS, BATHROOMS, AND LAUNDRY

COMMON SINK AND LAVATORY

LEAK LOCATIONS

Base of faucet

Chrome supply tube or

metal-sheathed connector

Supply nut

Angle stop

Waste gasket

Slip nuts

P-trap

Porcelain or ceramic lavatories with through-cracks

Sink drains should slope down, not up, and this type

such as this should be replaced.

of corrugated drain is not approved for sink drains by

most jurisdictions. It can become easily clogged.

K I T C H E N S , B A T H RO O M S , A N D L AU N D R Y 267

TOILET CHECKPOINTS

Check for

tank cracks.

Tank-to-bowl seal

Supply nut

Burst-proof connector

Check that the bowl

doesn’t rock.

Stop-valve

Silicone caulk

connections

around base

Wax ring

trap; or an old S-trap beneath the sink is allowing all

SURVEYING ITS CONDITION. As you start

the water in the trap to exit. Replacing the S-trap with

inspecting a toilet or bidet, scan the bowl and tank

a P-trap or upgrading bathroom venting is a job for a

for cracks. Surface cracks are not a problem, but

licensed plumber.

leaking stress cracks are a reason to replace the unit.

To check for leaks, examine the tank-to-bowl seal

TOILETS AND BIDETS

on two-piece toilets, the water-supply fitting on the

Toilets and bidets are almost always vitreous china

underside of the tank, and the stop-valve fittings.

and are distinguished primarily by their type and

Dripping at these connections can usually be fixed

flushing mechanism. Almost all toilets are one of

by installing a new washer or bushing. If the toilet

three types: traditional two-piece units, with a sepa-

has flexible plastic supply lines that are swollen, they

rate tank and bowl; one-piece toilets; and wall-hung

should be replaced with burst-proof metal-sheathed

toilets. Wash-down toilets are cheap, inclined to clog,

connectors. If water drips from the outside of the toi-

and banned by some codes. Reverse-trap toilets are

let tank in warm weather, that is probably just moist

quieter and less likely to clog than wash-downs. The

air condensing on the tank filled with cool water, a

quietest and most expensive models are typically

normal condition that can be mitigated by installing

siphon-jet or siphon-vortex (rim jet) toilets.

268 KITCHENS, BATHROOMS, AND LAUNDRY

Broken toilet lids are common. Sometimes it is difficult

This toilet base is inadequately supported. In time

to locate a matching replacement and it becomes nec-

it will move, breaking the wax ring seal between the

essary to replace the toilet with a new one.

underside of the toilet and the drain, allowing leaks

and sewage gas to enter living spaces. A basic rule is

that the toilet perimeter should be sealed to water-

an expanded polystyrene “sweat stopper” insulator

resistant flooring with silicone or other caulking.

inside the tank.

ROCKING THE LOO. Put your hands on both

sides of the bowl and try to rock the toilet (gently)

tired fill valve (ballcock valve) is not working, which

from side to side. Stand over the toilet, with one leg

should be replaced. When you lift the lid of the tank,

on each side and give it a light shove. The toilet should you may see the fill valve submerged. The fill valve

not rock. If the rocking is slight, tightening the nuts

should be above the water level of the tank to prevent

on the base of the toilet may be all that’s needed. If the potential siphoning and cross connections. Many

toilet rocks and wetness or sewage smells are present,

unapproved valves are available that are designed to

the nuts have worked loose, the wax ring on the

be submerged, but they don’t meet code and should

underside of the bowl may have failed, and sewage

be replaced.

gases from the drainpipe are escaping. The toilet

should be drained, removed, the wax ring replaced,

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

and the toilet reset and bolted tight. If the toilet

■

■

Identify the type and material of each lavatory

wobbles (rocks badly), there’s wetness, and the floor-

and examine each for cracks and chips.

ing has deteriorated or seems springy, sustained

■

■

Look for water dripping from a spigot after

leakage may have rotted the subflooring and possibly

valves are shut tight and leaks around the base

the framing underneath. In addition to removing the

of faucet handles (typically caused by worn

toilet and replacing the wax ring, flooring and fram-

washers).

ing may need to be repaired or replaced.

■

■

Look inside bathroom cabinets for water stains,

active leaks, and deterioration.

NOTE: Whenever a toilet is pulled (removed),

the underside of its base should be caulked with a

■

■

Look for nonstandard supply pipe and drainpipe

materials, such as flexible plastic.

bathroom-grade sealant before the toilet is reset.

■

■

Do lavatories gurgle when they empty or is there

CHECKING ITS OPERATION. If a toilet over-

a lingering sewage smell?

flows, there’s blockage. Using a plunger usually

■

■

Scan toilets and bidets for cracks and leakage

clears it but if it persists, there may be a cracked soil around their bases.

pipe that tree roots have entered. If a toilet runs con-

■

■

Look for leaks around tank-to-bowl seals, water-

tinuously after flushing, the tank may be leaking or a

supply fittings, and stop-valve fittings.

K I T C H E N S , B A T H RO O M S , A N D L AU N D R Y 269

■■ Does the toilet rock when you exert gentle side-

to-side pressure?

■■ If a toilet rocks or wobbles, are there sewage

smells, wetness, or springy flooring nearby?

COUNTERTOPS AND CABINETS

The diversity of countertop and cabinet materials

(and hardware) makes it difficult to generalize about

how long kitchen and bathroom cabinets will last.

As with other house systems, maintenance is critical,

especially repairing leaks quickly, caulking joints

where water collects, and monitoring cabinet interi-

ors for signs of water damage.

COUNTERTOP MATERIALS

This inexpensive laminate counter and base cabinet

The most critical areas of a counter, where it is most

are badly worn and should be replaced. Standing

likely to be damaged, are where the counter meets

water, abraded surfaces, handles wired shut, and a

the back wall; where there are cutouts for sinks,

disposer switch on the cabinet face (see p. 257) make this setup unsightly and unsafe.

cooktops, and the like; and along counter edges.

Maintaining counter edges is mostly about limiting

impact. Installing backsplashes—and keeping them

could break caulking seals, possibly crack counter-

caulked—is the best way to protect the joint where a

tops and, in very unlikely instances, fall over.

counter meets a back wall. Sealing the perimeters of

NOTE : The one exception to these observations is

sinks, lavatories, and cooktops with a quality caulk,

a moveable island, a base cabinet that rolls freely;

and keeping it sealed, is the surest way to keep water

it is not fixed. Rolling cabinets are particularly dan-

from leaking under these objects and damaging the

gerous to small children because they can tip over

cabinets underneath. So as you inspect countertops,

if a child tries to climb up one. Consequently, many

you will, of course, look for chips, cracks, scratches,

local codes ban them. If you come across a moveable

and scorch marks. But focus on the critical areas.

island, red-flag it in your report.

DOORS. Cabinet doors get banged and scuffed

BASE CABINETS

a lot, which is mostly cosmetic damage that a coat

Kitchen and bathroom cabinets today are basically

of paint or a refinishing will fix. Doors that don’t

boxes of plywood, particleboard, or MDF panels that

align to frames or other doors need to have their

are glued and screwed together. Side panels, bot-

hinges adjusted or reset. In time, hinge screws can

toms, and partitions are typically 5⁄8 in. thick; back

pull out. Note missing door hardware, including

panels are usually 1⁄4 in. thick.

hinges, pulls, and knobs. If doors have glass panels,

MOVEMENT. Base cabinets rarely move because

note cracked ones.

they are screwed to wall studs, toe-nailed to toe kicks

DRAWERS. Fully loaded drawers, especially those

and subfloors, weighed down by countertops, and

holding pots and pans, can weigh 50 lb. or more, so

screwed to other base cabinets. But should you note

it’s not surprising that their gliding mechanisms

gaps between cabinets and between cabinets and

jam or fail. Misaligned, sticking drawers aren’t just

walls, apply gentle pressure to see if you can tilt or

inconvenient. As impatient humans continue to yank

move them in any way. Base cabinets that do move

on them, stuck drawers can pull apart, with the face

270 KITCHENS, BATHROOMS, AND LAUNDRY

The faces of these base cabinets are badly worn,

Remodeled kitchens often have large openings in the

though it may be possible to refinish them. Most likely,

cabinet wall below the sink. A new back panel closely

the doors were wiped with an abrasive pad, when a

fitted to pipe sizes should be installed to keep rodents

damp sponge would have been adequate.

and other critters out.

panels usually pulling off first. So note drawers that

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

do not pull out easily, those whose faces do not align

to other drawers or cabinet frames, and drawers that

■

■

What material are countertops made of? What is

are falling apart. Drawers that stick are frequently

their general condition?

missing pulls and knobs.

■

■

Scrutinize the back of each countertop, where

it meets the wall. Is there a backsplash? Is the

UPPER CABINETS

joint well caulked, especially behind the sink and

faucets?

Upper cabinets have most of the failings of base

■

■

Are counter edges intact, or are they worn,

cabinets, including scuffed, damaged, and misaligned

cracked, or delaminating?

doors; hinges that need adjusting or replacing; and

■

■

Are both upper and base cabinets well secured?

missing door pulls and knobs. Perhaps the most

Do shelves in upper cabinets sag or do the cabi-

serious concern is that upper cabinets be securely

nets tilt away from the wall they are attached to?

mounted to wall studs because a lot of weight—fully

Are there gaps behind upper cabinets?

loaded shelves may bear hundreds of pounds—rests

■

■

Is there a moveable island in the kitchen? Note its

on relatively few attachment points. Fortunately,

danger to children in your report.

upper cabinets rarely fall, but keep an eye out for gaps

■

■

Note the condition of cabinet doors, both their

between upper cabinets and walls behind them, sag-

surfaces and whether doors line up with cabinet

frames and other doors. Do hinges need

ging shelves, and cabinet bodies or shelves that tilt

adjustment?

forward away from the walls they are anchored to.

■

■

Do cabinet drawers move freely? If drawers stick,

examine their hardware rollers for worn wheels

or bent tracks.

■

■

Are any doors or drawers missing pulls, hinges,

or handles?

K I T C H E N S , B A T H RO O M S , A N D L AU N D R Y 271

CAUTION: GAS-FIRED

WATER HEATER NEARBY

When a water heater is located near

laundry equipment, residents must be especially

careful about regularly cleaning dryer lint filters and

avoiding lint buildup in vent ducts. Lint is dry, quite

combustible and, being so light, it could easily be blown toward the water heater, where it could catch fire.

These two receptacles behind a washer and dryer are

extremely unsafe and should be replaced immediately

by a licensed electrician. Neither is securely mounted

Laundry

and their exposed conductors could short out against

an appliance’s metal housing.

Home inspectors are likely to find laundry setups

almost anywhere in a house, including the garage,

kitchen, basement, or a second-floor closet off the

master bedroom.

So start your report by noting the laundry loca-

tion and the type and condition of the flooring. If

the flooring or subflooring is water damaged, try to

determine the cause.

Place a short level atop the washer and dryer to see

if they are level. If they are stacked units, check that

they are securely attached. Then run each briefly—the

spin cycle is sufficient for the washer—to see if they

vibrate excessively. From time to time, wash loads

get imbalanced and machines that vibrate or “walk”

can stress electrical and plumbing connections and

make a terrific racket. Washers and dryers need stable

footing, leveling adjustments, and, for stacked units,

secure attachment to stack-racks or support frames.

A 120-volt/240-volt dryer receptacle has screw termi-

WIRING REQUIREMENTS FOR

nals for two hot wires (red and black), a neutral wire

LAUNDRY SETUPS

(white), and a ground wire or pigtail (green).

Clothes washers and dryers are often wired with two

surface-mounted receptacles. Dryers typically require

120-volt/240-volt wiring because, in addition to their

wires, a neutral wire, and an equipment ground wire.

240-volt heating elements, dryers have components

Equipment grounds on washers and dryers connect

that use 120 volts, such as drum motors, timers, and

to appliance housings to provide a safe route for fault

buzzers. Therefore, dryer circuits include two hot

current should a short circuit occur.

272 KITCHENS, BATHROOMS, AND LAUNDRY

Gas valves that are not in use should have a safety

Flexible vinyl exhaust piping is not approved for

cap installed to prevent gas escape should someone

clothes dryers because it can constrict airflow or,

become curious and open the valve.

worse, could melt from high temperatures.

THE IMPORTANCE OF FOUR-POLE,

GAS HOOKUP FOR DRYER

FOUR-WIRE DRYER RECEPTACLES

Approved gas piping and connectors are discussed

In many older homes, 120-volt/240-volt, three-pole,

at greater length in Chapter 8, particularly on p. 182.

three-wire, nongrounded receptacles for appliances

The following is an encapsulation.

such as dryers and ranges are common. Older dryers

GAS PIPING. Approved gas piping includes rigid

were configured so that the neutral also served as the

galvanized steel, rigid black steel, and CSST flexible

equipment ground; thus the circuit serving such a

gas tubing; some types of plastic piping are approved

dryer had two hots and one neutral conductor.

if used underground or outside. Unapproved piping

The shift from nongrounding-type receptacles to

includes cast iron, copper, brass, and aluminum,

grounded receptacles and appliances was made to

though some exceptions are made for copper and

improve safety and was required by the NEC in the

brass tubing for natural gas with low amounts of

early 1970s. Newer dryers had cords and plugs with

hydrogen sulfide. Gas piping must be properly sup-

four wires: hot, hot, neutral, and ground.

ported, typically every 6 ft.

Code allows a nongrounded receptacle to be

GAS CONNECTORS. A gas connector is the

replaced with another nongrounding receptacle but

flexible tubing that connects a gas-fueled appliance

also requires a grounded receptacle (120-volt/240-volt,

such as a furnace to rigid gas supply piping. Modern

four-pole, four-wire) if there is some way to bring an

connectors are typically corrugated and have a

equipment-grounding conductor in the outlet box.

shiny gray plastic coating. Flexible stainless-steel

The code also requires a grounded four-pole, four-

or bright yellow connectors are also found on some

wire receptacle for all new installations.

new equipment.

K I T C H E N S , B A T H RO O M S , A N D L AU N D R Y 273

DRYER VENTING

It’s imperative that dryer lint filters be changed after

each load, and vent ducts be regularly checked and

cleaned as necessary. Clogged ducts slow drying,

waste energy, and their contents can cause fire. Make

sure the dryer vent terminates outside and is capped

by a weather hood that keeps out precipitation and

critters. Too often, dryer vents terminate in an attic

or a crawl space, which dumps warm, moist air

inside the house and thus promotes mold.

The following are some common venting

problems.

FLEXIBLE DRYER VENT PIPING. Only smooth-

This dryer vent correctly terminates outside in a

wall metal vent piping is approved for attic or crawl

weather hood, but the hood has become clogged.

space use. Flexible clothes dryer vent piping should

Hoods should be checked periodically for blockage

and cleaned as needed.

be used only between the dryer and the wall or floor

connection. The rough interior surface of flexible

venting can collect lint, and if the vent bends too

damage before the leak is detected. Washers in

sharply or collapses, it can obstruct air flow.

such locations should have a catch pan underneath

VERTICAL DRYER VENT. Dryer vent piping that

whose drainpipe runs to an approved drain or dis-

runs straight up is more likely to accumulate lint

charge area.

and clog. Ideally, most of the vent should have only

a slight upslope.

DRAINPIPES

VENT TOO LONG. Dryer venting that is too long

Washing machine drainpipes should be 2 in. diam-

may reduce efficiency, accumulate lint, and create a

eter of any approved material. In older houses, drains

fire hazard. The general rule is that dryer vent piping

are often cast iron; ABS plastic drains are most com-

should be no longer than 14 ft. with a maximum of

mon in new construction. Flexible piping may not be

two 90° bends. For each extra 90° bend, the total vent

used as drains. Inspect drainpipes to see if they are

length should be reduced by 2 ft. The manufacturer’s

free of cracks and connections are tight, if pipes are

instructions should be followed.

securely anchored so they cannot move, if the drain

has a P-trap (never an S-trap), and if any leakage or

SUPPLY LINES

sewage smells are present.

To allow washing machines to be slid out without

Nonstandard constructions may include the

disconnecting water supply and to accommodate a

following.

certain amount of vibration during operation, wash-

A 11⁄2-IN. DRAIN. Older clothes washer drain

ing machines have flexible supply lines that screw

lines are often 11⁄2 in. dia., which can discharge only

onto threaded hose bibs. Standard supply lines are

9 gal. per minute, maximum. Some new washers

reinforced rubber, whereas more durable ones are

discharge up to 13 gal. per minute. If a new washer

braided stainless steel over polymer cores. Inspect

is installed, it may be necessary to install a 2-in.

supply-line connections for wear and leaks.

drain line, which has a 15-gal.-per-minute capacity.

CATCH PANS. Washers over wood flooring or

Determining drainpipe adequacy is beyond the scope

on the second floor may leak and cause substantial

of most inspections.

274 KITCHENS, BATHROOMS, AND LAUNDRY

Water supply connectors may wear out and fail over

This washer drainpipe runs straight through the floor

time. Rubber hoses like these are susceptible to failure

and does not have the required U-shaped trap located

and should be replaced with metal sheathed washer

above the floor.

connectors.

IMPROPER DRAIN PIPING. Washing machine

■

■

Is the dryer vent flexible plastic or smooth metal?

drains should have a trap located above the floor

If flexible, are any sections collapsed or crimped

level. The vertical standpipe should be between

enough to impede air flow?

18 in. and 30 in. long, and there should be a vent

■

■

Where does dryer venting terminate? If venting

terminates outside (as it should), does it have a

connection on the waste pipe past the trap. The trap

weather hood?

and vent piping are often not accessible to inspec-

■

■

Are dryer vent ducts mostly horizontal with a

tion. If pipes gurgle as water drains, venting may be

slight upslope or vertical?

inadequate or absent.

■

■

What are washer supply lines made of? Are they

in good condition? Are connections tight?

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

■

■

Is there a catch pan beneath washers on wood

floors or those located on a second floor?

■■ Where is the laundry located? What kind of floor-

ing does it have and what condition is it in?

■

■

What is the size and composition of the washer

drainpipe? Does it have a trap?

■■ Are both washer and dryer tops level? If it’s a

stacking unit, are both machines securely at-

tached? Do you observe excessive vibration or

walking when machines are running?

■■ Is the dryer gas or electric? If gas, are gas piping

and connectors an approved type? If electric, is

the dryer receptacle three-hole or four-hole?

■■ Remove the dryer lint filter and examine the cav-

ity in which it sits: Is it clogged with lint?

K I T C H E N S , B A T H RO O M S , A N D L AU N D R Y 275

CHAPTER 13

ATTACHED

STRUCTURES

ONCE YOU’VE INSPECTED THE MAIN HOUSE, apply

what you’ve learned to porches, decks, garages, and other attached structures. All need solid footings or foundations, good weatherproofing, effective drainage, and cor-

rect flashing where they join the house. Attached garages that share a common wall with the house raise important

safety issues such as carbon monoxide from vehicles and

fire hazards from fuel fumes or spills. Building codes are strict about safety violations, so be sure to note them in your report.

276 ATTACHED STRUCTURES

PORCH CHECKPOINTS

Water enters if not

properly flashed.

Gutters and

At first glance it can be difficult to determine how a

downspouts

are missing or

porch is constructed. This porch is most likely concrete

clogged.

supported by wood framing, which can be durable

and low maintenance, but the weight of the materi-

als makes it subject to settlement, cracking, moisture

Water

entry, and wood rot.

collects

here.

Steps settle.

Porches

Porches are intermediate structures that intercept the

weather, keeping it off people as they fish for their

keys or wait for someone to answer the door. Porch

construction varies greatly, ranging from a roofed

Lattice lets air in;

Soil–wood

overhang barely large enough to shelter someone

keeps critters out.

contact will rot.

carrying grocery bags to a sprawling verandah with

a full complement of wicker furniture. Almost all

porches are open to the elements to some degree, so

maintenance is critical for their structural health.

PORCH FOUNDATIONS

pools next to the house. However, if there are gaps

Porch foundations vary greatly, though most start

between porch decking (floorboards) that water can

with a wood-framed floor platform of posts and

drain through, it’s acceptable to build a level porch.

joists, with a girder supporting the joist loads of

Gaps must be kept open, or decking may rot.

larger platforms. Floor platforms may rest on a

Wood framing should be at least 6 in. or 8 in.

low concrete perimeter wall or, more likely in older

(depending on local requirements) above the soil to

houses, on an array of concrete or concrete block

minimize wood rot and insect infestation. To fore-

piers. Whatever the foundation, its footing must be

stall rot, pressure-treated lumber is typically used to

below the frost level in colder climates or the founda-

frame the porch substructure, with metal, building

tion will settle unevenly, tilting the porch above it.

felt, or sill seal placed between wood and concrete.

Speaking of tilt, porch floors exposed to the weather

Even with these preventative measures, however,

typically slope slightly down (say, 1⁄8 in. per foot),

porch framing will be exposed to a lot of moisture

away from the house, so that rain runs off rather than

and metal connectors frequently rust. It is important,

277

with stucco or wood siding, you may have to access

the subporch area by crawling under the house, if

there is any access door, or you can pop a ventilator

screen and shine your flashlight into the area.

Before you crawl under a porch scan its upper

parts for obvious problems such as cracked siding or

sinking porch posts. Underneath the porch, look for

concrete piers that are clearly too small or without

footings, posts that are tilting or not secured to piers, wood–soil contact, termite infestations, or a ledger

that is incorrectly flashed and/or pulling free from

the house.

Though difficult to access, the underside of these

porch steps shows a new stair stringer bolted to an old

LEDGER . A ledger is a board fastened to the house section of decayed sheathing. The new stringer is not

to support one side of a deck. The ledger–house con-

rot resistant. The damaged wood should be repaired

or replaced. The framing should be treated with a

nection is usually flashed with sheet metal to prevent

good-quality preservative and the connections above

water entry. If water leaks behind this juncture, it

sealed as needed to prevent future water entry.

can rot house studs, and if leaves and other debris

accumulate above the ledger, they will retain mois-

ture and hasten rot inside and out. So if you can reach

the ledger, probe it to see if it’s rotted or loose.

Learn what you can about the condition of the

PORCH DWELLERS

framing that supports the porch stairs. The lower

ends of stair supports (called stringers) will be

Raccoons and opossums denning under a

almost impossible to reach because the bottom tread

porch or deck may not be a problem to some people, but

is only inches above the ground. But inspect it as

such creatures can be aggressive when disturbed and

best you can for soil contact, fungus, rot, and insect

a real danger to house pets not smart enough to leave

infestation. Probe, too, the underside of stair treads

them alone. Sealing the area under the porch with wire

and risers, then turn off your flashlight and look for

mesh or lattice porch skirts may keep them out, but seal

only after you are sure there are no babies still in the den.

daylight coming through gaps and cracks.

PORCH STAIRS AND RAILINGS

Determine what the stairs are made of. Porch stairs,

landings, and decking are finished in many materi-

therefore, that there be adequate drainage and venti-

als, such as concrete, brick, tile, stucco, and wood,

lation, especially if porch skirts (the area between the

but almost all of these surfaces are supported by

floor and the ground) are clad with siding. Tradition-

wood framing underneath. A water-resistant mem-

ally, skirts are covered with lattice that allows good

brane is often placed over the framing to prevent

airflow yet keeps critters out.

moisture entry and damage, but membranes wear out

SUBSTRUCTURE. Inspecting the condition of

in time. Any cracks or openings in surface materials

a porch substructure can be challenging in two re-

should be caulked or filled to prevent water entry.

spects. First, it may be close to the ground: Typically

Next, assess the condition of the stairs and rail-

codes allow the undersides of joists to be as low as

ings. Use the stairs and grasp the railing firmly to

18 in. above grade. Second, if porch skirts are covered

see if it moves as you ascend and descend. Railings

278 ATTACHED STRUCTURES

As steps settle they can leave large gaps at the house-

Uneven steps are inherently hazardous. Painting the

to-wall connection. Caulking the gap will lessen water

bottom step or walkway a different color will help

entry, but rebuilding the stairs is the only lasting

warn stair users, but these stairs should be rebuilt as

solution.

soon as possible.

should be solidly attached, with minimal sway when

tugged on, with no splits or rot visible. Do the stairs

seem springy, and are any steps cracked, cupped, or

rotted? Does the staircase tilt to one side (supports on

one side may have failed), or are there gaps between

either end of the steps and the stairwell casing? Is the

top of the staircase pulling free from the porch deck?

Note on your report if stairs are painted because

painted steps can be slippery when wet.

Be sure to keep the following issues in mind as you

inspect exterior stairs.

UNEVEN STEPS. Individual steps in staircases

should have a consistent height and depth for safe

use. The difference between one step and any other

This railing has the correct shape, but it could catch

step in the same staircase should not be more than

someone’s clothing as they descend, possibly causing

3⁄

a fall. Railings must terminate against a wall or a post.

8 in. Uneven steps are a potential trip hazard and

should be corrected.

GUARDRAILS. Modern building standards call

HANDRAILS. Staircases with three or more steps

for railings at least 36 in. high for any porch, deck,

should have handrails that are between 11⁄2 in. and

stair, or landing more than 30 in. above an adjacent

2 in. wide. As with handrails inside the house, porch

surface and for openings in the rail to be less than

rails should be placed and shaped so they can be

4 in. wide. Railing openings large enough for a

readily grasped for safety and should be 34 in. to

child to fall through should be modified for safety.

38 in. above the leading edge of the stairway treads.

This standard was recently changed from 6 in. to

They should return to the railing, post, or ground

4 in. after it was found that small children can slip

and should not end in a projection that could be

through a 6-in.-wide opening.

hooked by clothing.

A T T A C H E D S T RU C T U R E S 279

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

Moisture collects and rot often occurs at the base

of wood posts that support the porch roof, especially

■■ If possible, examine the porch framing and deter-

if wood posts rest directly on wood decking. Ide-

mine which finish materials have been used on its

surfaces.

ally, there should be a piece of metal flashing under

■■ Do screened openings allow ventilation under the

the post. Fixing post rot can be a complicated job

porch or is the area closed off?

that requires temporary shoring to support the roof

■■ Scan the porch for obvious signs of distress? Are

load while the wood post is repaired or replaced. In

any parts of the porch sinking or badly tilted?

some cases, a wood post or column is hollow, with a

Is the porch floor–house joint flashed? Is there

weight-bearing metal post inside.

standing water or rot along that joint?

If porch stairs and decking are painted, you may

■■ Beneath the porch, are concrete piers too small

wish to spray them with a garden hose to see how

or without footings? Are there posts that are

slippery they are when wet. If they are slick, self-

tilting or not secured to piers? Is there wood–soil

contact or insect infestations?

adhering strips or nonslip paint should be applied

■■ Do wooden stair stringers rest directly on soil?

to provide safer walking surfaces.

■■ What is the general condition of stairs and rail-

ings: solid or shaky?

PORCH SUPERSTRUCTURE

■■

The superstructure of the porch includes all the ele-

Do stairs tilt to one side? Are there gaps, crack-

ing, or other signs of deterioration?

ments above the decking, including posts, railings,

■■ Are all steps the same height and depth or are

braces or brackets, porch roof framing, and all trim

they uneven, which is a fall hazard?

and finish materials.

■■ Are there guardrails along the stairs? Are open-

POSTS OR COLUMNS should be rot-free top

ings between guardrails 4 in. or less?

and bottom and more or less plumb. Because wood

■■ Are handrails the correct size and the correct

is strong in compression, posts rarely fail, but they

height above steps? Do they return so that cloth-

can be weakened if they rot, split, or are forced out

ing will not hook on them?

of plumb by settling or failed footings. Decorative

PORCH DECKING

If floorboards are snug against each other, porch

floors should slope slightly down away from the

house to clear water. If boards have slight spaces be-

tween them that water can run through, porch floors

can be level. Look for fungus and minor decay where

water has been allowed to stand, particularly where

porch floors abut house walls. That juncture should

be flashed, but if it is not and debris has accumulated,

you may find rot. Rotted decking should be replaced.

Floorboards that sag between supports are proba-

bly too thin to span the distance between joists. If the

sagging decking has some rot, it’s probably wise to

replace it with thicker boards. However, if the deck-

Wooden porch posts that sit directly on wood or

ing is in good condition, the remedy may be crawling

masonry decking will wick moisture and rot. One solu-

tion here would to replace the wood post with wrought

under the porch and adding joists between existing

iron. The brick mortar has deteriorated allowing gaps

ones to shorten the distance decking must span.

for water entry. New brickwork and flashings will be

needed.

280 ATTACHED STRUCTURES

brackets often serve a structural function, as do

■

■

Scan the porch header (roof rim joist) for crack-

diagonal braces that help keep posts plumb.

ing or sagging.

THE PORCH HEADER may be seen instead of a

■

■

Is the porch roof correctly flashed where it abuts

roof rim joist, depending on how the porch roof is

the house wall?

framed. In either case, its function is to support the

■

■

Are there rain gutters along the porch eaves and

downspouts and drainpipes to carry runoff away

rafter ends overhanging the porch and transfer their

from the porch and the house?

loads, down through the posts, to the foundation.

Porch headers should not sag; if they do, they are

Decks

undersize for the loads they carry and the distance

Decks are like porches without roofs, thus they are

they span. The simplest remedy for a sagging header

more exposed to weather and more prone to rot.

is adding posts. If the header is cracked or rotted,

Decks, however, frequently host social gatherings

however, it should probably be replaced.

and the accumulated live loads of dozens of people

FLASHING THE PORCH ROOF to the house is a

make deck foundations, framing supports, and brac-

critical detail to get right and is explained on p. 72.

ing crucial to get right, especially if a deck is high

Flashing details will vary depending on how the roof

above the ground. Though decks are traditionally

is framed (shed or peaked), what kind of siding is

simple structures, many local codes now require that

on the house, and what type of roofing is used. The

they be engineered.

general rule is that upper overlaps lower. So the upper

leg of the porch-to-house flashing slides up under the

house siding, whereas the flashing’s lower leg goes

over the top course of porch roofing.

GUTTERS, DOWNSPOUTS, AND DRAINS.

Even a small porch roof concentrates a lot of runoff,

which should not be dumped next to house or porch

foundations. Just like a main roof, a porch roof re-

quires a system of gutters to catch runoff at the eaves,

feed it to downspouts, and direct it away from the

house by an assembly of drainpipes (see p. 73).

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

■■ If porch floorboards (decking) are placed snugly

together, does the porch floor slope down away

from the house so that rain water can run off?

■■ If the porch floor is level, are there 1⁄4-in. gaps

between floorboards so water can clear? Are any

gaps filled with debris? Is there any rot because

of standing water?

■■ If floorboards sag between joists, the boards are

too thin; if the whole porch platform sags, the

joists are too small for the distance they span.

■■ Is there rot along the base of wooden posts?

Inadequately sized and footed, this deck’s unbraced

■■ If porch decking is painted, is the surface slip-

pery when wet?

supports could fail. Many decks like this one fail each

year when overloaded for barbecues or parties.

A T T A C H E D S T RU C T U R E S 281

DECK FOUNDATION AND FRAMING

NOTE : Some pressure-treating chemicals are

Most decks are wood-framed floor platforms with

incompatible with metal and will corrode it.

joists typically supported by girders running below

INSPECTING UNDER A DECK will be challeng-

for support. Often, rim joists (joists that run around

ing if it is built close to the ground. As with porch

a deck’s perimeter) are doubled up. An array of posts

framing, many codes allow the undersides of deck

is positioned under the rim joists and girder(s), with

joists to be as low as 18 in. above grade. Look for piers each post resting on a concrete pier whose footing is

that are sunken or tilted and thus not fully support-

below the frost line. This is essential in cold climes

ing posts, posts that lean or can be moved by hand,

because footings that merely sit on the ground will

and posts that lack steel framing connectors. Note

move. Even if the ground doesn’t freeze, footings

connectors that are badly rusted. Use a screwdriver to

should be set 12 in. into undisturbed ground.

probe post ends for rot and to probe under footings

If the deck is close to the ground, its support

that you suspect are sitting only on the ground, to see

posts will be short and generally not need diagonal

how deep they are.

bracing, though all deck joints should be reinforced

Note any wood–soil contact or insect infestation

with steel framing connectors such as joist hangers,

to wood framing. Particularly note the bottoms of

standoff post bases, post-to-beam connectors, and

stairs or stair carriages: They too should rest on

the like. When a deck is well above the ground—say,

footings at least 6 in. to 8 in. above grade, but often

at a second floor or on a sloping lot—its taller posts

they rest directly on the ground and are rotted. Note

should be braced diagonally to resist lateral move-

any wood connections that are pulling apart, such

ment and shifting live loads on the deck.

as stair treads to carriages or joists to rim joists.

The top of concrete piers and other foundation

elements should be at least 6 in. to 8 in. above grade

to prevent wood–soil contact and minimize insect

infestation. Pressure-treated lumber is commonly

DECK FRAMING DETAIL

used to frame the porch substructure, with metal be-

tween wood and concrete (or any masonry surface) to

prevent moisture wicking up and rotting wood posts.

Spacer

washers

allow

drainage.

Bolts or structural

screws, not nails!

Joist

hanger

Deck joist

Flashing

Pressure-treated

ledger

Support posts and beams need strong connections,

typically large bolted metal brackets. These connec-

tions are only minimally nailed.

282 ATTACHED STRUCTURES

Metal deck connectors frequently corrode when they

Modern composite deck materials made of wood

come in contact with the chemicals used to pressure-

fiber and recycled plastic are largely rot resistant and

treat lumber. A peel-and-stick membrane such as

typically last longer than wood decking, but they do

Vycor® is a good way to isolate pressure-treated

require some maintenance.

wood from metal connectors.

Again, all joints should be reinforced with steel fram-

In addition to looking for rot, inspect decking

ing connectors.

for cracking, cupping, discoloration, and splitting.

DECK RIM JOIST/LEDGER . If the deck is not

Cupping typically occurs when there is standing

freestanding, often the deck rim joist that runs along

water, caused by boards that have been installed too

the house is bolted to house framing or supported by

close together or by debris that has lodged between

a ledger beneath that is bolted to the house. Decks

them. Discoloration has similar causes; dark stains

are rained and snowed on (without the protection of a

may be the first stages of mold. Splitting is usually

roof), and a gap between the rim joist/ledger and the

caused by sun damage, which periodic recoating with

house can allow water to drain, as shown in “Deck

a good wood preservative can often prevent. Badly

Framing Detail” on the facing page.

worn decking should be power-washed and recoated.

The ledger–house connection should be flashed to

Walk the deck. Decking that sags between supports

prevent water entry. If water leaks behind this junc-

may be too thin to span the distance or the joists may

ture, it can rot house framing as well as decking. And

be too far apart. The basic rule is that 2× decking will

if leaves accumulate above the ledger, they can retain

span 24 in. and 1× decking needs joists every 16 in.

moisture and hasten rot. As you inspect the ledger,

MODERN MATERIALS. There have been great

probe it to see if it has rot or is pulling free from the advances in decking materials, connectors, and fas-house. If the ledger is only nailed, it should be bolted

teners. To solve the persistent problem of deck nails

or attached with code-approved structural screws.

popping up and deck boards lifting, many installers

now use special deck screws or, to prevent nail splits,

DECKING

hidden decking clips.

Decking (floorboards) on a deck is spaced 1⁄4 in. apart

Composite lumber made of recycled plastic and

so that water can drain through; for that reason, it’s

wood fiber is now widely used for decking, handrails,

important that debris between boards be regularly

and trim, though it should not be used for structural removed. Decks whose boards are snug against each

purposes. Composite decking is largely impervious to

other or that are covered with synthetic coatings

water and insect damage, but it must be maintained.

should be designed to drain freely. (More about that

in a bit.)

A T T A C H E D S T RU C T U R E S 283

RUBBERIZED DECK COATINGS

Synthetic coatings are often used on

wood-framed decks over living spaces to prevent

moisture entry. Coated decks should be designed to

drain freely. In new construction a secondary drain

is typically installed 2 in. above the lowest adjacent

surface, to prevent deep flooding should the lower

drain get blocked. Drains should be checked often

for debris, especially if trees overhang. If a deck or

balcony wall drain becomes clogged, significant

This deck’s guardrails are extremely hazardous to

damage can occur.

kids. Openings exceed the 4-in. maximum required by

safety codes and a small child could easily climb the

Getting the name of the installing contractor and

horizontal rails.

the type of coating will be helpful should recoating

be necessary. Minor cracks and openings can often

be repaired by recoating, whereas badly damaged

coatings should be stripped to the decking. Coatings

can obscure decay or moisture-related damage to the

materials below, so it may be advisable to consult a

qualified pest-control firm if your inspection suggests

further damage.

STAIRS, GUARDRAILS, AND HANDRAILS

As you go up and down stairs to a deck, note if any

treads are cracked, cupped, separating from their

carriages, or excessively springy. They should be solid

afoot and securely attached at top and bottom, with

Handrails need to be gripable; a 2 board on edge

doesn’t qualify.

the bottom cleat resting on a footing at least 6 in. to

8 in. above grade. It bears repeating that the vertical

distance between stair treads should be even—of

supporting them. Support posts should be bolted to equal height—so the stair user’s rhythm is not inter-deck framing, not merely nailed, because in time

rupted, causing him or her to trip and fall.

nails work loose. If posts or rails wobble, write them

GUARDRAILS. For decks more than 30 in. above

up. Special steel connectors that tie railing posts to

an adjacent surface, building codes require railings at

framing can usually correct wobble if the post and

least 36 in. high. As with other guardrails, openings

framing are sound.

in guardrails must be less than 4 in. wide (see p. 279).

HANDRAILS. If the deck is accessed by three or

SECOND-STORY DECKS AND BALCONIES

more steps, handrails are needed. The requirements

The structural concerns for decks just discussed

for size, shape, and height are the same as for porch

are even more compelling for second-story decks

handrails (see p. 279). In addition, it’s important that and balconies because of the greater height of such

all railings be soundly attached as well as the posts

structures. These concerns include extending foot-

284 ATTACHED STRUCTURES

Metal drip-edge flashing should extend beyond the

edge of the stucco below. Burying this flashing’s edge

in stucco has created water stains and, possibly, water

entry and rot.

Insufficiently braced stairways to a porch or a deck

can be very dangerous for someone trying to move a

heavy object such as a refrigerator to the upper floor.

treated, decay-resistant lumber. Replacing corroded

These stairs should be replaced.

brackets, screws, and nails with stainless-steel ma-

terials is one solution, but may be an expensive one.

ings well below the frost level, adequately sizing and

Painting connectors showing minor rust with a rust-

bracing support posts, using metal connectors to

inhibiting coating may extend the life of corroded

reinforce critical joints, securely attaching deck and

connectors but is not a permanent solution.

balcony platforms to house framing, correctly flash-

Some contractors will wrap the framing with a

ing junctures to prevent rot, and fastidiously moni-

waterproof tape before adding the metal connector.

toring and maintaining surfaces and structures. All

This approach will work as long as there is no direct

take on increased importance when one considers the

wood to metal contact. The screws that secure the

potentially catastrophic consequences of a balcony or

connectors may need to be stainless or have a special

second-story deck collapse.

coating.

Keep in mind the following components, especially

FASTIDIOUS FLASHING. Flashing a deck ledger

when inspecting second-story decks and balconies.

to the main-house framing (see p. 282) must be done ADEQUATE SUPPORTS. Correctly sized, footed,

properly to keep water from getting behind siding

and braced deck-support posts are essential. In

and rotting the house framing. As the right photo

addition to bearing the dead weight of deck materi-

above shows, metal drip-edge flashing must extend

als, supports may need to be engineered to support

beyond the edge of the siding to avoid water intru-

live loads that can shift as people on the deck move,

sion, staining, and extensive rot damage.

exerting considerable lateral force.

MULTIPLE DRAINS. Balconies are often con-

STRONG CONNECTIONS. Support posts and

structed over portions of the building below. It’s best

beams need strong connections, typically large

to have at least two surface-mounted drains in case

bolted metal brackets. Metal rusts and corrodes,

one becomes clogged. Wall-mounted overflow drains

however. One persistent problem is corrosion due to

should be located low on the wall, at least lower than

metal connectors’ incompatibility with chemically

any door threshold.

A T T A C H E D S T RU C T U R E S 285

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

■

■

Do all deck footings extend below the frost level

or, in frost-free areas, at least 12 in. below grade?

Are the tops of all footings at least 6 in. to 8 in.

above grade?

■

■

Under the deck, look for wood–soil contact and

rot. Do the bottom of stairs rest on footings at

least 6 in. to 8 in. above grade?

■

■

Have steel framing connectors been used to

secure posts to footings and to joists, joists to

A surface drain with a nearby overflow, as shown here, is girders and rim joists, and stair stringers to fram-ideal. If the drain becomes clogged, water can exit out

ing? Are any connectors corroded or rusted?

the overflow rather than flooding the adjacent rooms.

■

■

Are support posts diagonally braced to resist

lateral movement?

■

■

Is a house–side rim joist or ledger securely bolted

to the house framing? Is it flashed to prevent

water entry? Is there a gap between the ledger

and the house to allow water to drain?

■

■

Are there 1⁄4-in. spaces between deck boards

so that water can drain? Does debris block any

of those spaces? Is rot present between deck

boards?

■

■

Is decking in good condition and solid under

foot? Or is it sagging and excessively springy?

■

■

This unvented soffit shows substantial water staining.

If decking is covered with a synthetic coating, is

It is water stained because the deck membrane has

it intact?

failed and its drain is clogged. After those problems

■

■

If the deck is at least 30 in. above adjacent sur-

are corrected, screened openings on the underside

faces, is there a railing 36 in. high?

would allow trapped moisture to escape.

■

■

Are guardrail openings less than 4 in.? Are the

railings easily climbable by a curious child?

■

■

Are steps, railings, and support posts solid, with

FLAWLESS SKIN. Balconies frequently have

minimal sway?

professionally applied, high-tech coatings that must

■

■

Do you feel any sway on a second-story deck

be durable and as flawlessly waterproof as is humanly

when you grip a railing and repeatedly push

possible. Undetected, even small leaks can cause ex-

on it with some force or jump up and down on

tensive water damage to framing and finish surfaces.

the deck?

■

■

It’s important to know the name of the waterproof-

Does second-story deck or balcony flashing ex-

tend beyond siding so water can drip free?

ing, the company that applied it and, if the coating

■

■

has a warranty, if the warranty is transferrable to

Do balconies with perimeter walls have at least

two surface-mounted drains?

new owners.

■

■

Are balcony coatings intact and free of rips,

VENTILATION. Balconies that extend out from a

tears, or cracks?

building often have stucco undersides called soffits.

■

■

If there are finished (closed) soffits on the under-

Soffits should have screened vent openings to allow

side of balconies, are they vented?

any moisture that enters from above to drain, thereby

reducing the potential for moisture-related damage

or decay.

286 ATTACHED STRUCTURES

Fuel-fired appliances located in garages should be

mounted on a platform at least 18 in. above the garage

floor and protected from being struck by a car, which

could cause an explosion.

GARAGES LOWER THAN LIVING SPACES.

Gasoline, auto exhaust, and many chemical vapors

are heavier than air and tend to collect on the garage

This garage wall leans significantly and the stucco ap-

pears to have been patched several times. The founda-

floor. Most modern attached garages have a concrete

tion should be replaced by a qualified contractor.

slab floor located below the floor of the room next to

the garage. Ideally, there should be at least one step

Garages

up to house living spaces from the garage, so that

Garages vary widely in configuration and construc-

chemical vapors stay largely in the garage when the

tion. Some are detached from the main house and

door between those spaces is opened.

some are attached, which has big implications for

A garage on the same level as house living spaces

safety. Garages also range from simple wood-framed

might be considered a health and fire hazard be-

shells whose mudsills sit directly on the earth, all the

cause, in addition to being flammable, many auto-

way up to two- or three-story structures with sophis-

related fumes are toxic. Houses with garages in

ticated in-law apartments.

unpartitioned basements are particularly hazardous,

especially if the basement areas are poorly ventilated

SAFETY CONCERNS

and create a location where flammable vapors could

It’s not something we think about much driving

collect.

down the road, but most automobiles are powered

FUEL-FIRED APPLIANCES IN GARAGES. Any

by a series of controlled explosions involving highly

fuel-fired appliance located in a garage, such as a

flammable materials. Because the primary function

gas- and oil-fired furnace, boiler, older water heater,

of a garage is storing this mobile explosion maker,

or clothes dryer should be situated on a stable plat-

the primary safety concerns of attached garages in-

form at least 18 in. above floor level. This height puts

volve confining flammable gasoline fumes, oil leaks,

the appliance’s ignition source (pilot light or burner)

and exhaust gases (such as carbon monoxide) to the

sufficiently above any flammable vapors that might

garage and out of the main house.

collect on the garage floor.

A T T A C H E D S T RU C T U R E S 287

FIREWALLS AND FIRE DOORS

To limit the spread of fire from an attached garage

to house living spaces, building codes require that

the firewall (the shared wall between the garage and

the house) be constructed of fire-rated materials.

Typically, a firewall is a solid wall built of a nonflam-

mable material, such as brick or concrete block, or

a stud wall covered, on the garage side, with Type X,

fire-resistant 5⁄8-in. drywall.

A drywall-covered wall is not, of course, perfectly

fireproof, so building codes typically specify how

long the firewall must contain the fire. Thus code

requirements may call for a wall with a 1-hour fire

Here, fire-resistant drywall panels create a 1-hour fire-

rating, though, again, codes vary. A firewall must

rated firewall. The smoke seals on the bottoms of each

extend from the garage floor to the ceiling, including

metal-clad fire door would also help confine fire and

smoke to the garage.

shared attic walls, if any. (Some codes require that

firewalls extend from the floor to the underside of the

roof.) If there is an attic hatch, it must be covered at

Many newer water heaters are now equipped with

all times. If you see an uncovered attic hatch, write it

flammable vapor ignition resistance (FVIR) systems

up as a potential fire hazard.

with flame-arrestor plates that allow them to be

Air-conditioners are not permitted in firewalls.

installed directly on garage floors.

The large opening in the wall could draw fire or

Other strategies for minimizing risk include build-

smoke into the home. Ducts that penetrate firewalls

ing a low, continuous wall around the appliance and

or ceilings should be at minimum 26-gauge sheet

isolating the appliance in a room with a tightly sealed

steel or other approved material and should have no

door. A tightly sealed enclosure will also need its

own source of fresh combustion air, as explained

on p. 179.

In addition, fuel-fired appliances, gas lines, and

gas meters must be protected from accidental impact

from a car. This protection could be a low masonry

wall or a bollard—typically, a concrete filled steel

post. Either structure must be stout enough to stop

a car. Judging from the number of cracked studs in-

spectors find in garage back walls, inattentive drivers

misjudge distance (and speed) all the time.

INCIDENTAL HAZARDS. Note that firewood

should never be stored in a garage: in addition to be-

ing fuel to burn, it’s often home to wood-destroying

insects. Household goods stored in a garage may be

innocuous from a safety standpoint, but they will

Pull-down stairs allow access to storage space above

the garage ceiling. The underside of the access stairs

limit your inspection, could add fuel to a fire, and

also needs a fire-rated surface, and stairs should be

may impede a resident’s escape in an emergency.

kept shut.

288 ATTACHED STRUCTURES

openings into the garage. Flexible ducting should not

be installed through a garage firewall unless it has a

rated fire damper at the wall connection.

HOW THICK IS THE FIREWALL?

ABS plastic waste piping should not be installed

through a fire-rated wall or ceiling.

During your inspection, it may

Multiple-story houses and duplexes in urban areas

not be obvious if a firewall’s drywall is thick

often have large garages at the first-floor street level.

enough to meet local fire codes. The easiest

These large open spaces may have a large central

way to determine its thickness is to remove a

beam running from front to rear. Sometimes these

switch plate or receptacle cover and look at

are steel I-beams, which are much more susceptible

the cut edge of the drywall. Brick or concrete-

block firewalls can be any thickness, as long as

to fire damage than are wooden beams because

they extend from floor to ceiling (or roof).

they will melt and fail long before a wood beam will

burn through. Steel beams should be insulated and

wrapped with a fire-rated material.

A FIRE DOOR is a fire-resistant interior door at

least 13⁄8 in. thick, situated on a firewall. A fire door should have smoke seals to prevent the infiltration

alone is not sufficient fireproofing because it heats

of smoke, flammable vapors, or superheated gases;

up quickly and can ignite the wood beneath it.

it should also be self-closing, though codes vary and

Consequently, many modern fire doors have cores

some homeowners find this feature inconvenient

filled with gypsum, which is a so-called endothermic

when they arrive home with a car full of groceries.

fill that absorbs heat. A new fire door should have a

Fire doors should be free of through-holes of any

label on the hinge side edge stating that it is a fire-

kind, whether for glazing or pet ports.

rated door.

Some codes once required that the garage side

of a fire door be covered with sheet metal, but metal

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

■

■

Is the garage lower than adjacent living spaces?

■

■

If fuel-fired appliances are housed in the garage,

are they installed on a stable platform at least

18 in. above the garage floor level?

■

■

Are fuel-fired appliances, gas lines, and gas

meters protected from an auto impact?

■

■

If the garage is attached to the house, there must

be a floor-to-ceiling (or floor-to-roof) firewall. Is

it built of appropriate materials and thick enough

to satisfy code fire ratings?

■

■

If there is an attic hatch in the garage, is it cov-

ered with a fire-rated surface? Is it closed at the

time of your inspection?

■

■

Is there a listed (code-approved) fire-resistant

door with a smoke seal? Does it have a self-

closing mechanism?

■

■

Are there any improper firewall penetrations?

Fire-rated doors between the garage and adjacent

living areas may not contain openings, such as a

pet door.

A T T A C H E D S T RU C T U R E S 289

Driveways that slope down into a garage can concen-

This nicely detailed garage approach has a concrete

trate rain runoff onto the garage floor. This broken

apron that slopes down to a grated drain. The cracking

driveway is in poor condition and should be replaced.

where the main structure connects to the driveway is

superficial.

GARAGE FLOORS, DRIVEWAYS,

Inserting hoses in drains can cause water damage if

AND DRAINAGE

the drains are not working properly. If there is a sump

Water is by far the most-cited cause of house prob-

pump in the garage floor, check its operation, too.

lems, and garages are no exception. Ideally, the

DIVERTING DRIVEWAY RUNOFF. If a garage

ground should slope down and away from the garage

is downhill from the road that runs by the property,

and runoff should be directed away from it, but that

a lot of water will run down the driveway toward the

doesn’t always happen. As noted earlier, garage con-

garage. It may be possible to landscape the lot and

struction often gets the tail-end of the construction

create intervening swale drains (see p. 19) to intercept budget.

the runoff, but such solutions will be too expensive

Start by noting the condition of the roof, how much

for most homeowners. More commonly, a small

eaves overhang, the presence or absence of gutters,

concrete apron in front of the garage opening is used

if gutters are connected to downspouts, and down-

to divert runoff to one side, to be carried off by peri-

spouts to drains. Use a garden hose to flush gutters

meter drains.

and downspouts and note if the system is clogged

A GRATED DRAIN BOX in front of the garage

or if it carries water away from the garage founda-

opening is another common solution. The drain

tion (however rudimentary). For a more detailed

box is typically rectangular in cross section, with its

inspection of the garage roof, exteriors, gutters, and

top buried flush to the drive surface. A removable,

downspouts, review Chapters 2 and 3.

slotted metal grate (sturdy enough to be driven over)

GARAGE FLOORS. A garage slab on a wet site is

sits atop the box, allowing rain to flow into it; either

probably going to be damp. If the slab has minimal

or both ends of the drain box attach to a gravel-and-

or no steel reinforcement, the slab may crack if soil

perforated-drainpipe system that carries the runoff

is unstable or the ground water pressure is sufficient.

away. When used in tandem with a concrete apron,

Small cracks can be sealed, but larger, through-slab

the drain box is typically placed before (uphill from)

cracks will likely get bigger. Write them up. If there

the apron, though the drain box can be useful on

is a floor drain, you may want to use a garden hose to

either side. It’s important that drain grates be cleaned

flush it with water and see how it drains. Be careful:

periodically because they fill up with leaves. The box

290 ATTACHED STRUCTURES

should periodically be flushed with a garden hose

to clear any buildup of dirt, gravel, and the like. If

drains fill up with debris, they will be useless.

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

■■ Garages should have overhangs, gutters, down-

spouts, and drains to direct water away. Use a

garden hose to see if gutters and downspouts are

clogged or open.

■■ Is the garage slab in decent shape? Does it have a

drain? Flush the drain to see if it works.

■■ Does the driveway slope downhill to the garage?

Is the bottom of garage trim or the garage door

water stained or damaged?

■■ Is there a sloped concrete apron or a grated drain

box in front of the garage door to divert runoff

away from the garage opening?

Garage framing that sits on concrete slab floors is

often damaged. Soil coming through the wall usually

■■ If there is a drain box, is it free of debris? Flush

indicates a soil level that is too high, exerting pres-

drains to see if to see if they empty quickly.

sure against garage walls. Because damage is often

obscured by stored items, you may need to move a few

FOUNDATION AND FRAMING

items during an inspection.

As with the main house foundation, the top of the ga-

rage foundation should be at least 6 in. to 8 in. above

grade, but this is more the exception than the rule

there is wood–soil contact; and note an absence of

with garage construction. Far too often, a concrete

gutters, downspouts, and drainage; surfaces that

slab floor is poured on grade and the garage mudsills

slope toward the garage; splashback, water-stained

sit directly atop that. If the mudsill is pressure-treated siding, or discolored framing; or vegetation touching

or a rot-resistant wood such as redwood, it may last

the building. Relatively minor decay or rot can often

decades before it rots out, but in the meantime stud

be treated locally with a preservative, but significant

bottoms and attached wood siding will have also

damage typically requires replacing rotted material.

rotted out or become infested with wood-destroying

Have a qualified structural pest control firm deter-

insects.

mine if fungus, decay, or other moisture-related

SUBSTRUCTURE AND FRAMING. On your

organisms are present.

report, note what kind of foundation there is, if

EMBEDDED SIDING /TRIM. The lower edges of

any, and its condition. Note the absence or presence

wood siding or wood trim are often buried in con-

of anchor bolts tying sills to the foundation and

crete, masonry, or asphalt when patios, sidewalks,

whether the concrete around such attachments is

or driveways are installed. There should be a gap

solid or crumbling. Note the sheathing, studs, plates,

between the wood and the surface below, so embed-

and rafters and any observed deficiencies. Note the

ded siding should be cut back and its ends sealed to

absence of any needed bracing (including foundation

prevent moisture-related decay or termite damage. In

ties), whether let-in wood braces or metal ones.

some cases, however, such repair is neither practical

MOISTURE-RELATED DAMAGE. Walk around

nor necessary, such as with garage siding and trim

the outside of the garage, using a screwdriver to probe

that are well protected by roof overhangs and show-

mudsills, studs, sheathing, and siding, especially if

ing no overt signs of damage.

A T T A C H E D S T RU C T U R E S 291

THE SLAM TEST

Master plumber and electrician Rex

Cauldwell has a simple test to tell how well built a

garage is: He slams a side entrance door good and

hard. If garage walls shake and garage doors rattle in

their tracks, the structure is probably underbuilt, with

framing members too small and/or too widely spaced.

Remedies will vary and may include placing new studs

between existing ones, adding diagonal bracing, or

sheathing the inside of the garage to stiffen it. A sea-

soned contractor can spell out the options.

The basic rule is that any beam that sags is undersize.

This sagging beam should be monitored to see if its

deflection is increasing or if the beam and its loads

have stabilized.

IF IT SAGS, IT’S UNDERSIZE . . . MAYBE.

GARAGE WIRING

The wide openings required for auto access require

Garages are not required to have electricity, but if they large beams to span and distribute the loads across the

are wired they must be wired safely. Electrical wiring

openings. An engineer should size such beams. Tech-

in new garages must meet current electrical codes,

nically, any beam that sags is by definition undersize

whereas existing wiring in older garages is frequently

and should be monitored and reinforced, or replaced

something of a gray area. Consult local electrical codes

if needed. But as long as the sagging does not impinge

to be sure. To be protected, all general-use receptacles

on garage door operation, a sagging beam can be

in a garage should be GFCI receptacles.

checked over time to determine whether its downward

Garage receptacles have appliance plugs inserted

deflection is increasing. The beam and load above may

and removed far more often than common household

have stabilized and not need any reinforcement.

receptacles. So it makes sense to spend a bit more and

install good-quality garage receptacles with durable

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

nylon faces and backs reinforced with brass yokes.

As you inspect garage receptacles, note any whose

■■ Does the garage foundation rise 6 in. to 8 in.

plastic faces are cracked, broken, or scorched; they

above grade or do mudsills sit directly on a

slab floor?

should be replaced immediately.

■■ When you slam a side entrance door, do garage

Your inspection of garage receptacles should

walls shake?

include testing each with a circuit analyzer (p. 146)

■■ What is garage framing sheathed with? Is the

to determine if the receptacle is GFCI protected, to

framing braced? Is the framing tied to the

ascertain that its polarity is correct, and to make sure

foundation?

that it is correctly grounded. Stationary appliances

■■ Probe mudsills, stud ends, and the bottom of

such as electric water heaters, tablesaws, freezers,

siding for rot and insect damage.

and other large energy users should be on grounded,

■■ Are the lower edges of wood siding or trim

dedicated circuits.

buried in concrete, masonry, or asphalt?

■■

NOTE : Dedicated outlets do not require GFCI

Do beams across garage door openings sag?

Does that interfere with door operation?

protection.

292 ATTACHED STRUCTURES

GARAGE DOORS

Note the type, composition, condition, and operation

of all garage doors. By far the most common type of

garage door is a sectional door that rolls up and out

of the way on overhead tracks (see the photo below).

When an overhead door is open, it takes up little us-

able space. One-piece overhead doors tend to be flimsy

because they must be light enough to lift. Hinged

garage doors are relatively rare and mostly found on

older homes; hinged doors require a lot of room to

open and nearly level or down-sloping ground in front

of them. Much less common are hybrid types that fold

Garage wiring below 7 ft. should be mechanically pro-

tected. Exposed Romex cable, as shown here, could be

and slide off to one side rather than overhead.

potentially hazardous should someone hang tools from

Whatever the type, open and shut the garage door

it (which is a surprisingly common occurrence).

repeatedly to see how easy it is to operate, if guide

wheels align to tracks, and if parts bind or stick.

If the garage has more than six circuits, it should

Write up cracked or broken glass, double-glaze seals

have its own electrical panel, a subpanel serviced

that have failed, or clear laminate glazing that has

by four incoming feed wires: hot, hot, neutral, and

become cloudy. Note squealing wheels, rusted tracks,

ground. In a subpanel, neutral and ground wires

missing hardware, and door sweeps that don’t seal

(and buses) must be physically and electrically iso-

tightly to the garage floor. Most of these problems are

lated from each other. For more about service panel

relatively minor and can be repaired easily.

and subpanel wiring, see Chapter 6.

Garage doors are made of various materials,

The most common electrical violations you will

primarily wood, metal, or plastic. Look for obvious

find in a garage will likely be installations that are

signs of damage, especially along door bottoms.

not quite complete, such as receptacles without

MANUAL DOORS. Overhead doors that close

covers, exposed runs of Romex (nonmetallic) cable

manually have tensioned springs on both sides that

below 7 ft., wiring runs that aren’t stapled to framing

at least every 54 in. and within 12 in. of outlet boxes,

wiring splices that aren’t in a covered box, and ceiling

boxes that are not secured to framing. If they aren’t

done right, write them up.

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

■■ Would garage wiring pass an electrical inspec-

tion or are parts of it incompletely finished?

■■ Are general-use electrical outlets in the garage

GFCI protected?

■■ Examine all receptacles. Are the plastic faces of

any cracked, broken, or scorched?

■■ Are stationary appliances on dedicated circuits?

Roll-up sectional garage doors are very popular in

■■ If the garage has more than six circuits, does it

newer construction. Some newer models have horizon-

have its own electrical panel?

tal joints especially designed to reduce finger pinching.

A T T A C H E D S T RU C T U R E S 293

Roll-up door tracks added to older garages may lower

Manual door opener switches should be located well

the overhead height of the ceiling and create an eye-

away from a tension-spring door-hinge mechanism,

level hazard. Ideally, overhead clearance should be at

unlike in this example, to prevent injury.

least 80 in. above the floor.

help offset the weight of the door. Spring tension

light beam across the garage-door opening, which

is adjustable. Typically, a rod or stranded metal

is received by the second sensor. If a person, animal,

restraining cable (safety retainer) runs through the

or object interrupts the beam, the door will not roll

center of each tensioned spring, to keep the spring

down, or if it is in the process of closing, it will halt.

from flying off and injuring someone should it break

It is easy to see if electric eyes are working. Simply

or pull free from its mounting bolts.

put your foot in front of a sensor to interrupt the light As you operate a manual overhead door, note how

beam. If the door is open, click the remote control to

much effort it takes to raise or lower it, whether

see if it will shut or, if the door is closing, to see if the guide wheels stick or roll smoothly in tracks, if the

door will stop descending or reverse itself. Auto-

door stays up when rolled open, and how fast the

matic doors vary, but almost all have an autoreverse

door descends when it is lowered. A manual door

that reverses direction when electric eye beams are

should never slam down as it closes, which could be

blocked or the door meets resistance before it reaches

hazardous to anyone, especially children, standing

its closed position.

beneath it. Most of these failings can be fixed with

To test the door’s autoreverse, slide a small card-

minor repairs, such as adjusting tension springs so

board box or empty plastic bottle into the garage

that the door ascends and descends slowly and gently.

opening, in the path of the descending door. If the

When a manual overhead door is closed, its lock-

door does not reverse, the safety feature is not work-

ing bars should slide into slots in the tracks and

ing correctly and should be inspected by a garage-

click shut. If locking bars do not align, they can be

door specialist. Electric eyes can usually be added to

adjusted.

older automatic doors.

AUTOMATIC, MOTOR-DRIVEN DOORS.

Last, all automatic garage doors also have a pull-

Modern garage doors are typically sectional overhead

down cord that enables you to open and close the

types run by a remotely controlled motor. An impor-

door manually (very useful when the power goes off

tant part of this setup is a pair of electric eyes (photo-and your car is parked in the garage). Yank down on

electric sensors) on both sides of the door. These

the cord to see if it works. Opening and closing the

sensors should be between 4 in. and 6 in. above the

door may be a bit of work, but it should not be pro-

floor. The transmitter of the pair shoots a continuous

hibitively difficult.

294 ATTACHED STRUCTURES

A GRANNY OVER

THE GARAGE

Because garages are usually accessible,

simply framed, and unfinished, they are among the

easiest structures to convert to in-law units—granny

flats, as they are commonly known. If the garage has

a granny flat, ask homeowners if a permit was pulled

and if a structural engineer approved the conver-

sion. Depending on local codes and when the space

was converted, the unit may need to meet all code

requirements for a residence, such as firewalls

Most jurisdictions now require electric-eye auto return

(and fire-rated ceilings) between living spaces and

mechanisms placed 4 in. to 6 in. above the floor. This

the garage.

one is located too high and should be adjusted.

If the granny flat is over the garage, the space may

have been originally intended only for storage, not

people, and the existing foundation may not be large

enough to support the live loads of someone living

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

upstairs. But if the garage was built with a poten-

tial live-in space above it, the foundation may be

adequate. A structural engineer should make the call.

■■ Note the type, material, and condition of the

If the unit’s floors are springy, it may be possible to

garage door(s). Is it manual or motor driven?

add a girder and support posts underneath to shorten

■■ Scrutinize the bottom of the door for water-

the span of floor joists without affecting the garage’s

related damage. Does the sweep on the bottom

functionality.

seal tightly to the garage floor?

Large garage door openings impact structure. An

■■ Note squealing guide wheels, rusted tracks, miss-

in-law unit over a garage may experience structural

ing hardware, and broken panes, if any.

failure in an earthquake, particularly if the opening

of the garage doors does not line up with other walls

■■ If it’s a manual door, does it open and close

easily, without slamming down? Are tensioned

of the building. This situation is commonly referred

springs on both sides intact? Does each spring

to as a “soft story.” A qualified engineer should be

have a metal restraining cable?

consulted about reinforcing this area.

■■ If it is an automatic door, does it have an electric

eye safety device? When you block the device’s

light beam, does the door halt or reverse?

■■ If the door lacks an electric eye, test the auto-

matic door’s autoreverse feature. Does the door

halt or reverse before crushing a cardboard box

in its path?

for any improper electrical wiring, stored gasoline,

■■ On an automatic door, verify that its pull-down

dumped used motor oil, or other potentially hazard-

cord (manual override) works.

ous chemicals.

■■ Is there an in-law unit in or over the garage? Was

Also, while walking the backyard, check the

it built with a permit?

ground for any lids or covers over possible deep

sumps or pits. Some of these covers can be easily

Outbuildings

removed by a curious child creating a real hazard.

Outbuildings are typically storage or garden sheds.

On a downsloping lot, walk to the far end and look

They are not included in a normal home inspection.

for failing retaining walls hidden behind shrubs

But it’s a good idea to take a quick look and check

and fences.

A T T A C H E D S T RU C T U R E S 295

CHAPTER 14

ENVIRONMENTAL

CONCERNS

IN RECENT YEARS, BUILDING SCIENTISTS have greatly

increased our understanding of how hazardous materials,

both human made and naturally occurring, can impact

our health and that of our environment. The hazardous

materials that affect our homes include asbestos, lead

paint, mold, radon, and a host of volatile organic

compounds (VOCs) such as formaldehyde. Many of these

materials are no longer produced, but their side effects

linger on, hidden in walls, buried in backyards (leaking

oil tanks), or invisibly present in the air we breathe.

Hazardous materials and environmental remediation are

not typically included in the scope of a general home

inspection, but by alerting homeowners to these environ-

mental concerns and informing them of their options,

home inspectors can offer a valuable service.

296 ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS

Asbestos

Asbestos is a family of six long-fibered, naturally

occurring silicate minerals. Asbestos has been mined

and manipulated for millennia. Its tensile strength

imparts both durability and flexibility: Asbestos was

mixed with clay to make cooking pots that could sit

in a fire, and woven into clothing. From the nine-

teenth century on, it was widely added to building

materials because of its ability to retard fire, absorb

sound, and resist electrical and chemical damage.

Its endlessly useful, long fibers contained a deadly

side effect, however. Inhaling asbestos fibers over a

prolonged period can cause serious illnesses such as

mesothelioma, lung cancer, and asbestosis (a restric-

tive lung disease similar to miner’s lung). In 1978,

textured acoustic ceilings with asbestos were banned

in the United States. And in 1989, the EPA issued the

Asbestos Ban and Phase Out Rule, which, though

later overturned in court, accelerated the movement

to remove asbestos from consumer products. (Asbes-

tos has not been banned altogether; it is still found in

niche products such as automotive brake shoes.)

Given its wide use and its relatively recent disuse in

building materials, asbestos is frequently found by

home inspectors. If the asbestos-containing material

is intact, generally it isn’t a health hazard. However,

when it is damaged, disturbed, or begins to deterio-

rate, its fibers can become friable (easily crumbled)

and airborne, which is a hazard. So an inspector’s job

Whenever you might encounter hazardous materials—

is to document asbestos occurrence, assess its condi-

such as chemically treated wood or rodent infestations

tion, and recommend appropriate action.

in a tight crawl space—dress appropriately.

HEATING SYSTEM COMPONENTS

Because of its fire-retarding and insulating qualities,

the material to adhere to irregular shapes. Straight

asbestos can be found on most fuel-oil or gas-fired

sections of hot water piping were often wrapped

heating systems installed before 1979. It takes

with thin corrugated sheets of asbestos, visible when

many forms.

viewed from a pipe end, with asbestos plaster applied

Boilers and hot water piping in older homes were

to seal joints, elbows, and transitional pieces. The

frequently covered with a white-gray asbestos swad-

flat, sheet-metal surfaces of forced-hot-air (FHA)

dling that was applied as fabric strips and parged

plenums and rectangular ducts were usually covered

(troweled on) like plaster. Visually, the texture is

with sheet asbestos.

rather like a mummy’s wrapping. The flexibility of

Asbestos coverings on furnaces and boilers were,

the strips and the plasticity of the parging allowed

for the most part, durable except when a pipe or duct

297

Asbestos is a common wrap on older heating

Asbestos was sometimes used inside heat supply

system ducts.

ducts at registers, which can contaminate the air in

living spaces, especially if the asbestos is friable.

got bumped hard, causing the asbestos plaster to

crumble or strips to detach. If you find an asbestos-

encased boiler or furnace, note crushed or unravel-

ing coatings. If the damage is limited, painting the

covering may reduce or eliminate the dispersal of

asbestos fibers. When it’s time to upgrade an old

heating system, a qualified asbestos-abatement

specialist should remove the asbestos casing before

replacing the boiler or furnace.

ASBESTOS INSIDE A HEATING SYSTEM is a

definite health hazard. Damaged asbestos on the

outside of ducts may be drawn into the air supply

Some older furnaces and water heaters have asbestos

cement flues. Because the asbestos is usually in a rigid

system, but asbestos inside ducts or the fan/blower form, it is not normally considered friable. These vents

housing is a potential hazard even if it is intact.

become damaged over time. Ideally, all asbestos

Moving air will in time lift and detach asbestos

cement flues should be scheduled for removal as part

of water heater or furnace replacements.

fibers. If you see a flexible white-gray fabric transition between a blower fan box and the main warm-air

duct, it may be asbestos, put there primarily to isolate

small children crawling around the floors, the danger

the fan vibration—to keep it from being transmitted

becomes even more pressing. The asbestos needs to

to the metal ducting. Have the fabric tested by a

be removed by a specialist.

qualified laboratory; if it contains asbestos, it should

be replaced.

APPLIANCE FLUE PIPES

Asbestos was sometimes used inside heat sup-

Some older furnaces and water heaters have asbestos-

ply ducts at registers. Register covers are frequently

cement flue pipes. (Sometimes called Transite pipes

removed to vacuum dust out of the supply duct; less

after a Johns-Manville brand that no longer contains

frequently, they are removed to sand old flooring or

asbestos.) The asbestos is in rigid form and is not

install new. In either case, removing the cover can

generally considered friable, so the flue piping can

release asbestos close to living spaces. If there are

be left in place unless it is damaged. If, however, the

298 ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS

Old electrical panel boxes may contain asbestos. The

Pre-1979 spray acoustic ceilings often contain asbes-

material shown is damaged and friable, so it should be

tos; they should be removed. Damaged fibers can

removed by an asbestos-abatement expert.

easily become airborne and be inhaled.

appliance is being upgraded, it’s advisable to replace

a great idea: fast, economical, and forgiving of sloppy

the flue pipe with a type specified by the appliance’s

framing and drywalling. It could even hide cracked

manufacturer. Many modern tankless water heaters,

plaster. And it deadened sound.

for example, discharge flue gases so cool that plastic

Trouble was, the mixture didn’t always adhere,

flue pipe is appropriate.

either because of inadequate prep work, an inexact

blend, or springy ceiling joists overhead. Before long,

ELECTRICAL PANEL ENCLOSURES

those asbestos-impregnated ceilings started to crack,

Old electrical panel boxes often contain asbestos,

crumble, and create respiratory problems for the

installed because it is fire resistant and impervious

people below. The bottom fell out of the popcorn-

to electrical activity. Typically, panel boxes were

ceiling market, while lawsuits flourished.

mounted low on an outside wall. Installed when a

Some of the textured acoustic ceilings that did stick

30-amp or 60-amp main was plenty of power, they

are still in place and pose little hazard. If there are liv-have seen many years of weathering and wear. The

ing spaces below and undersize ceiling joists overhead,

asbestos is usually in sheet form, so its edges become

it would be prudent to seal the ceiling with a good coat

more worn and friable each time the panel box door

of paint. Or cover it with a new layer of drywall or, if

is opened and closed. Such boxes should be removed.

there is enough headroom, with a suspended ceiling.

Children playing outside can easily open such an

Ideally, though, they should be removed.

accessible little door, exposing them to asbestos and

electrical hazards.

FLOOR TILES

Vinyl asbestos flooring was very popular in the 1950s,

CEILINGS

both as resilient sheet flooring and as tiles, typically

Textured acoustic ceilings (“popcorn ceilings”)

9 in. sq. The asbestos is embedded in the vinyl, so it

brought the asbestos problem home (literally) and

is not generally considered to be hazardous unless

prompted the first ban of asbestos products in the

the flooring is sanded, drilled, or sawn. Asbestos was

United States. To reduce shrinking and cracking, as-

also an additive in resilient flooring adhesive, which,

bestos fibers were mixed into a plaster-like slurry that

60 years later, is a gray-white substance with a tex-

was sprayed onto ceilings. At the time it seemed like

ture similar to dried taffy. If homeowners intend to

E N V I RO N M E N T A L C O N C E R N S 299

tors and subcontractors in flooring, roofing, heat-

ing, plumbing, or electrical trades should anticipate

asbestos-abatement costs as they prepare estimates

for repairing or remodeling older homes. Asbestos-

abatement specialists can help determine the need

for remedial action and its cost. Where the presence

of asbestos must be determined by laboratory analy-

sis, an asbestos specialist can collect samples and

explain results, which is well beyond the scope of a

general home inspection.

Lead

Lead is a neurological toxin, particularly damaging

Vinyl asbestos (VA) tile flooring was very popular in

the 1950s. The asbestos is encapsulated in the vinyl

to children six and younger, who seem drawn to it

and is not generally considered to be hazardous unless

because it’s slightly sweet. Breathing it, eating it, or

it is sanded, drilled, or cut.

drinking water with a high level of lead can cause

mental retardation in children. In people of all ages,

lead can cause headaches, anemia, lethargy, kidney

remove the flooring or the asbestos adhesive beneath,

damage, high blood pressure, and other ailments.

an asbestos abatement contractor can advise how

In residences, old paint is the principle source of

best to proceed.

airborne and ingested lead contamination. Lead sol-

MISCELLANEOUS USES

der, old sections of lead supply pipe, and residual lead

In the 1950s and 1960s, asbestos was in everything

in some faucets contribute to lead contamination of

short of the cake batter. Occasionally, home inspec-

drinking water.

tors still find it as rope-like door gaskets on vintage

UNDERSTANDING LEAD PAINT

kitchen ranges, fire-stop caulking, range hood

Lead-based paint adheres to almost any surface

seals, drywall joint compound, window putty, house

and weathers well, so it’s not surprising that it can

drainpipe and sanitary sewer drainpipe, and land-

be found in 90 percent of houses built before 1940.

scape edging. Asbestos-cement roof tiles and shingle

However, as lead’s health hazards became known

siding have proven durable as long as they are not

in the 1950s, paint manufacturers began to phase it

cracked by falling branches, rocks, and other hard

out and it was banned altogether in 1978 by the U.S.

knocks. As long as they are intact, these materials

government.

represent almost no hazard. Somewhat more friable

Because of its durability, lead paint was commonly

are the exposed edges of economy asbestos-cement

used on exteriors, glossy kitchen and bathroom

roof sheets. (Look for frayed edges.) Blown-in asbes-

walls, in closets (which rarely get repainted), and as

tos insulation is mostly hidden behind finish walls,

an enamel on interior doors, windows, stair treads,

where it will probably remain, unseen and unoffend-

and woodwork. So each time a swollen window or

ing, until some renovator decides to gut the walls.

sticking door was forced open, it ground lead paint

PROFESSIONAL ABATEMENT

into flakes and dust. Roof leaks, drainage problems,

Removing or containing asbestos-laden building

and inadequate ventilation add to the problem be-

materials should be done only by properly trained

cause excessive moisture causes the paint to degrade

and equipped professionals. Thus general contrac-

and detach sooner.

300 ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS

door and window trim and siding. A LeadCheck kit

contains 16 swabs and costs less than $50.

If sample areas test negative, it’s probably safe to

work on the house, though one should of course still

wear appropriate respirators and minimize exposure

to paint dust. Homeowners planning an extensive

renovation would be well served to order a lead-testing

kit from an accredited testing lab, take additional

samples, and have the lab validate the results gotten

from the inexpensive kit. To locate a qualified lab

or ask any other lead-related questions, contact The

National Lead Information Center at www.epa.gov/

lead/nlic.htm.

Old wood window sashes frequently contain lead

paint, which can become an airborne hazard if the

paint is sanded or becomes loose.

LIMITING LEAD-PAINT CONTAMINATION

Because lead paint sanded or scraped by home renova-

tors can become airborne, it can contaminate neigh-

In well-maintained older homes, the presence of

boring houses, too. This section gives renovators an

lead may not be a dire problem if old paint is well

overview of how to limit contamination to workers,

adhered. Lead becomes most dangerous when it

family members, and neighbors; it is excerpted from

becomes airborne, especially during sanding or

Renovation: 4th Edition (Taunton Press, 2012).

heat-stripping, for then it can be inhaled and easily

absorbed into the bloodstream. Anyone considering

renovating an old house should postpone demo-

lition or paint removal until the structure has been

tested for lead paint and appropriate remediation

is planned.

TESTING FOR LEAD PAINT

Testing is the only way to know for sure if an older

house contains lead paint. It’s easiest to gather paint

samples from areas where it’s already flaking or

peeling, such as on door trim, windowsills, and stair

treads. There are a number of test kits available at

home centers but at this writing only one satisfies

EPA criteria for false positives and false negatives:

LeadCheck.

Testing is pretty straightforward. Using a utility

knife, cut away a small amount of surface paint to

get at earlier layers underneath. Rub the test swab

on the exposed area, as shown in the bottom photo

on p. 32. The brighter the swabbed area, the greater All lead-contaminated materials must be bagged or

the concentration of lead. Test several areas, such as

wrapped in plastic before they can be disposed of.

E N V I RO N M E N T A L C O N C E R N S 301

COVER UP. Wear a respirator with N100 or P100

are equally taboo, so avoid using heat guns, which

HEPA filters and snug-fitting goggles; a full-face res-

generate temperatures exceeding 1100°F. Setting dry

pirator is not a bad idea but may be too hot to work in.

old wood ablaze is another hazard to avoid. So if strip

Disposable coveralls, booties, and gloves are a must;

you must, chemical strippers are safer, especially

tape shut neck, wrist, and ankle openings. At the end

environmentally friendly ones. Before scraping,

of the day, shed contaminated work clothes at the job

stripping, or removing any lead-painted materials,

site: Wearing them home could endanger your family.

mist the surfaces to suppress dust. During cleanup

NOTE : You can find disposable respirators for about phases, mist plastic wall and floor coverings too to

$10, but a reusable respirator with replaceable filter

keep down dust. A gardener’s pump sprayer is a good

cartridges is a better buy if the job extends beyond a

tool for this operation.

few days.

DECONSTRUCT, DON’T DEMOLISH. Carefully

CONTAIN THE MESS. Tape all HVAC registers

dismantling materials will release less dust than de-

shut and turn off the furnace and A/C so it won’t start

molishing them. Scoring along the edges of painted

while you’re working in the room. To contain lead-

trim, siding, and other building materials will reduce

paint dust and debris inside, use 6-mil sheet plastic

debris when removing them. When you pry such

and painter’s tape to isolate and contain the mess.

materials, do so gradually along their length to mini-

Tape plastic across door openings to seal off work

mize breakage. If it’s necessary to cut tainted materi-

areas from living spaces, and cover walls inside the

als to a more manageable size, use a power saw at-

work area with plastic as well, so they can be wiped

tached to a HEPA-filtered vacuum system. Remember,

down and vacuumed when you’re done. Protect floors

every piece of contaminated building material must with rosin paper or heavy cardboard, and cover that

be bagged in extra-strength plastic disposal bags or

with sheet plastic taped to baseboards to keep it in

wrapped in plastic and vacuumed before removing it

place. When cleanup is complete, roll up and discard

from the containment area.

the plastic.

CLEAN THOROUGHLY. Outside, after bagging

PROTECT THE NEIGHBORS. It’s impossible to

or wrapping everything sizable, use a HEPA-filtered

predict the movement of air or neighbors, so contain-

vacuum to capture dust and small debris. Mist the

ing the mess of an exterior renovation is complicated.

plastic to keep dust down, detach the plastic any-

Start by taping sheet plastic over doors and windows

where you stapled or nailed it to the house exterior

to keep dust out of the house. Next use 6-mil black

or the containment frame, then fold the plastic in on

plastic to cover the ground to a radius of 10 ft. from

itself to capture remaining residue, and bag the plas-

any lead-bearing surfaces that will be disturbed.

tic. While still in the containment area, vacuum your

To keep dust, paint chips, and debris inside this

coveralls and booties, then remove and discard them.

10-ft. containment area, construct a box around

Inside the house, once you’ve bagged, wrapped, or

it—rather like the sides of a sandbox—using lumber

removed any interior debris, wipe down the plastic

set on-edge. Staple the plastic to the box. Last, create

covering the walls. (Wet- and dry-cleaning cloths can

a cordon of rope or plastic warning tape in a 20-ft.

be purchased at most home centers.) Then wipe plas-

radius from lead-bearing surfaces to keep people out

tic floor tarps. Roll each plastic sheet in on itself to

of the work area.

trap remaining debris, then bag it. Vacuum coveralls

MINIMIZE DUST. An essential part of confining

and booties and discard them. Finish up by wiping

lead contamination is minimizing dust. Any sand-

down all surfaces with a wet-cleaning cloth; each

ing, grinding, or scraping tools must be attached

cloth is good for cleaning about 40 sq. ft.

to a HEPA-filtered vacuum system. Noxious fumes

302 ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS

WHEN TO CALL IN A LEAD-ABATEMENT

LEAD PIPES

SPECIALIST

The deleterious effects of lead have been known for a

In 2010, the EPA issued the Renovation, Repair, and

long time, so finding lead water supply pipes during

Painting (RRP) Rule, which required professional

an inspection is increasingly uncommon. When lead

contractors working on houses built before 1978 to

supply pipes are found at all, they are usually as short

take extensive precautions to protect their crews and

lengths near the water main’s entry into a house or

homeowners from the potential presence of lead

beneath an old, little used utility tub in the basement.

dust. Though the EPA exempts homeowners working

Lead pipe is typically a dull gray, which when scraped

on their own homes, lead poisoning doesn’t exempt

with a penknife or a screwdriver blade gleams silvery.

anyone. Everyone should take it seriously.

Until the late 1980s, the solder used to sweat cop-

The EPA’s 2010 RRP Rule is complex, and this brief

per pipe contained a small amount of lead, which dis-

discussion is no substitute for knowing the law. You

solved into standing water in pipes, especially if the

can read about it at www2.epa.gov/lead/renovation-

water was slightly acidic. Copper supply piping is very

repair-and-painting-program.

common, so some amount of dilute lead in drinking

Broadly stated, the rule is designed to make people

water is found in about a third of homes. Home-

aware of the hazards of lead, requires renovation

owners concerned about the presence of lead can

firms to be certified in lead-safe work practices,

draw samples and have them analyzed by a laboratory.

presents ways to limit potential contamination, and,

EPA lead limits in drinking water are 15 micrograms/

in effect, directs those doing the work to capture lead-deciliter. For more, visit the EPA site at water.epa.gov/

contaminated materials, treat them as toxic wastes,

drink/index.cfm.

and dispose of them safely.

Water samples are typically taken in two draws:

The law is quite specific about how waste is to be

The first draw is of water sitting in supply pipes for at captured. Containing the limited amount of debris

least 4 hours; the second draw is taken after the water

generated by, say, a kitchen remodel is probably

has been allowed to run for 1 minute. The concentra-

within the capabilities of most contractors or well-

tion of lead, if any, will of course be higher in the first prepared homeowners. But if the renovation project

draw. However, 80% or 90% of houses whose first

involves a sizable modification of an exterior that has

draw shows high lead levels show virtually no lead on

tested positive for lead, hire lead-abatement special-

the second draw. So homeowners who don’t have the

ists. Complying with particulars of the RRP Rule will

resources to replace lead-tainted supply piping are

be their headache, not yours.

well advised to run the tap for 1 minute.

In theory, containing lead-painted debris is

Slightly more common are lead toilet bends or

straightforward but, in practice, it is a nightmare.

waste pipes, which are often left alone if they are

Most job sites are a chaotic stream of delivery trucks,

functioning well; they pose little risk because they

subs, inspectors, and crew coming and going. Add

are not part of the supply water system.

to the mix nervous neighbors, thanks to extensive

notifications of lead-abatement in progress, posted

Mold

throughout the neighborhood. If it’s windy, contain-

Mold is a diverse family of fungi that causes natural

ment may also involve erecting scaffolding and a

materials to degrade. Mold spores are microscopic

plastic envelope around the house. It can be a huge

and found pretty much everywhere.

undertaking.

Mold needs three things to grow: water, a tempera-

ture range between 40°F and 100°F, and organic mat-

ter such as lumber or paper. Short of building houses

E N V I RO N M E N T A L C O N C E R N S 303

SOURCES OF EXCESSIVE

INTERIOR MOISTURE

Common sources of excessive interior moisture are

(1) air infiltration (moist outside air leaking in);

(2) poorly installed roofing or incorrectly flashed

windows and doors; (3) improper surface drainage;

(4) unsealed crawl spaces; (5) inadequately vented

bathrooms, kitchens, laundry appliances, water heat-

ers, and furnaces; and (6) leaking HVAC ducts.

Because the largest source of interior moisture

comes from kitchens and bathrooms, one of the

easiest, most cost-effective ways to reduce it is to

install exhaust fans.

ASSESSING THE EXTENT OF MOLD

If mold is limited to small areas at the top of a bath-

Mold often occurs below kitchen and bathroom sinks.

room or exterior wall, it may be surface mold caused

If these areas are covered with wood or plaster they

can probably be washed and repainted with a mold-

by condensation or inadequate ventilation. However,

inhibiting paint. But if there is moldy drywall, it should if mold is widespread around windows or doors,

be removed, the area behind washed and dried, and

bathroom drywall is crumbling, or tiles mounted on

new mold-resistant gypsum board installed.

drywall are loose, there’s probably mold growing in

the walls. Start looking at the base of the walls.

out of inorganic materials, the easiest way to thwart

General inspections are limited to visible condi-

the growth of mold is to exhaust excess moisture,

tions. To better assess the extent of mold, however,

sending it outdoors.

a homeowner could turn off power to the area,

Interior moisture generally isn’t a problem un-

remove a baseboard, and use a utility knife to cut

less it’s excessive and sustained. (Normally, relative

small holes in the drywall. If there’s no mold, holes

humidity indoors should be 35% to 40% during the

can be patched and covered with the baseboard. More

heating season.) Signs of excessive moisture include

likely, you’ll find discolored or rotted framing and

condensation on windows, moldy bathrooms or clos-

extensive mold colonies.

ets, soggy attic insulation, and exterior paint peeling

Moldy lumber and engineered wood products

off in large patches.

such as plywood, particleboard, and OSB may just

Mold thrives on the paper and adhesive in drywall,

have surface mold, so they should be probed with a

and because drywall is so widely used in houses,

screwdriver or a pocketknife to see how sound they

there are a lot of places for mold to grow when condi-

are. If they are spongy, they will need to be replaced.

tions are right. Toxic molds are rare. But combine

Engineered wood products are particularly suscep-

mold and excess moisture with a tight house and

tible to rot because they contain adhesives that fungi

poor ventilation and people sensitive to mold can

feed on.

develop serious respiratory problems. Fortunately,

CLEANING UP MOLD

inspectors have highly specialized equipment—

Mold can’t grow without moisture, so before remov-

noses—for detecting mold. If your nose gets stuffy,

ing mold-tainted materials, one must first identify

your eyes itch or water, or you start coughing when

and correct the source(s) of the excess moisture.

you enter a room, start looking for mold.

304 ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS

LIMITING EXPOSURE TO MOLD

Workers involved in mold-abatement should limit

their exposure to mold spores by wearing respirator

masks with N95 filters, rubber gloves, eye protection,

and disposable coveralls, which they should discard

at the end of each day.

After assessing the mold’s extent, workers should

determine the shortest way out of the house for

contaminated materials to minimize spreading mold

spores to clean areas. Surface mold should never be

sanded as that will spread spores. To control dust,

rent a commercial-grade vacuum with HEPA filters.

REMOVING TAINTED MATERIALS. To contain

Mold can grow behind vinyl wallpaper and may not be

visible unless the paper is pulled away from the wall.

spore-laden dust, a helper should hold the hose of the

Plaster walls can usually be washed and painted, but

commercial-grade HEPA vacuum near the materials

moldy drywall will have to be replaced, ideally, with

mold-resistant gypsum board.

being cut. Moldy debris should be wrapped in 6-mil

plastic before it is carted away to an appropriate

disposal site.

Otherwise, the mold can return. If mold is extensive,

homeowners should hire a professional clean-up

Interior Air Quality

mold-remediation company. Here are some of the

At the same time that houses have become tighter to

clean-up steps.

save energy, sophisticated building materials with

SURFACE MOLD should be washed with soap and

chemical components have increased greatly. Though

water and allowed to dry thoroughly. There’s no need

largely benign, these chemicals can cause allergic re-

for caustic bleaches to kill mold spores (and irritate

actions. So, having looked at airborne irritants such

lungs) because washing should remove mold. After

as asbestos and mold, now let’s clear the air about

the surface has dried, it should be painted with a

this new generation of building products.

stain killer such as B-I-N®. If mold has caused the

drywall’s paper facing to roughen or delaminate,

FORMALDEHYDE AND OTHER VOCS

the drywall should be cut back at least 1 ft. beyond the

VOCs are organic chemical compounds that evapo-

damaged area and replaced.

rate (become vapor) under normal indoor conditions.

MOLD IN WALLS. If an inspection reveals

There are many kinds of these human-made and nat-

mold growing inside wall cavities, the affected area

urally occurring chemicals and they are everywhere.

(including heating registers) should be sealed off

VOCs are present in thousands of building products,

with sheet plastic. Damaged drywall should be cut

including paints, caulks, adhesives, and plywood. To

back at least to the nearest stud center on both sides;

cite just one category, they help paints spread easier,

optimally, the whole finish wall should be gutted to

dry faster, and adhere better.

expose the framing. Surface mold on framing should

But VOCs’ remarkable versatility comes with a

be scrubbed and allowed to dry well before new

price. As they evaporate, they outgas (give off gas) a

drywall is installed. Removing damaged framing is a

variety of chemicals that adversely affect air quality,

job for a licensed contractor, because replacing more

especially if ventilation is poor and concentrations

than one stud typically requires temporary shoring to

are high. According to the EPA, the agency that

support the loads above.

regulates VOCs, “Building occupants complain of . . .

E N V I RO N M E N T A L C O N C E R N S 305

headache; eye, nose and throat irritation; dry cough;

Home inspectors face a quandary in reporting a

dry or itchy skin; dizziness and nausea; difficulty in

problem so vaporous. If you detect acrid smells, say

concentrating; fatigue; and sensitivity to odors.”

so, but note that such smells typically dissipate in

Numerous studies show a correlation between the

time, do your best to assign a cause, such as fresh

incidence of some cancers and prolonged exposure to

paint or newly installed plywood cabinets, and sug-

VOCs in indoor environments. Prolonged exposure is gest that if would-be buyers or homeowners are con-an important point: Harmful VOCs are typically not

cerned, they can have the air analyzed by a lab. There

acutely toxic, so symptoms and conditions, if any, are

are, for example, VOC sensors, electronic devices

slow to emerge. For that reason, research into VOCs

that can detect (and identify) faint traces of organic

and their effects is difficult.

compounds based on how they interact with sensor

It would take many volumes to discuss these

components.

chemicals in a serious manner. So let’s take a look at

PRACTICAL NEXT STEPS. Whether homeowner,

just one VOC, formaldehyde, that’s widely used and

home inspector, or home renovator, read up on VOCs.

widely known as a carcinogen.

Do not rely on general information sites such as Wiki-

UFFI INSULATION. In response to the oil short-

pedia; instead read the material provided by the EPA,

ages and price spikes of the early 1970s, energy con-

the National Institute for Occupational Safety and

servation became a priority for many homeowners.

Health (NIOSH), and the Occupational Safety and

Insulation products were rushed to market, including

Health Administration (OSHA). Equally useful is

urea formaldehyde foam insulation (UFFI), which

surveying a house’s cache of unused or under-used

was sprayed inside the walls of roughly a half million

paints, solvents, and glues and getting rid of most of

homes in less than a decade.

it. Adding a workshop, garage, or basement fan (or

Almost immediately, complaints of acrid, lingering

opening windows) is a good way to increase ventila-

smells surfaced, followed by reports of respiratory

tion and decrease VOC concentrations in the air.

problems; watery, itching eyes; headaches; and nau-

LOW- OR NO-VOC CHOICES. Building-supply

sea. When inexpertly mixed, UFFI outgassed formal-

manufacturers continue to explore and develop less

dehyde for weeks or months and some homeowners

toxic components. They have, for example, greatly

sensitive to the chemical felt that the smell never

reduced UF resins in structural panels such as

really went away. Subsequent research suggested a

CDX plywood, primarily by switching to phenol

link between prolonged exposure to high concen-

formaldehyde resins (PFs). Such panels are usually

trations of formaldehyde and cancer rates in lab

stamped NAUF.

animals. So UFFI insulation was discontinued. Most

There are formaldehyde-free options for the sheet

of the houses insulated with UFFI still contain it, but

materials used inside a house—such as molding,

the consensus is the foam no longer outgasses to any

paneling, and cabinet frames, doors, and shelves.

significant degree.

These low-VOC materials greatly help the quality of

CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS. Formaldehyde

indoor air.

is used to manufacture many building products,

Last, there is now a wide selection of solvent-free,

including paints, lacquers, paint strippers, caulks,

low-VOC adhesives that are nontoxic, as well as

adhesives, pressed wood products such as plywood

complete lines of green paints, such as Benjamin

and OSB panels, and prefabricated cabinets made

Moore® Natura® and AMF Safecoat®, which contain

from such products. Once again, a sizable number

no VOCs. It’s a category sure to expand. To help you

of homeowners report lingering smells, respiratory

make your choice, many manufacturers now offer

problems, and headaches.

interactive, online product selectors.

306 ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS

clearinghouses have emerged. Canadians can find

spray-foam insulation contractors whose product

meets the National Standard CAN/ULC/S705.1 by

visiting www.sprayfoam.com. In the United States, the Air Barrier Association of America (ABAA) lists

accredited contractors and describes its on-site

quality assurance program at www.airbarrier.org.

The ABAA will also recommend third-party auditors.

Proving cause and effect is difficult, even with an

army of auditors testing the air in a house. Many

building materials are used in a renovation, any

one of which could contain chemicals or glues that

Spray polyurethane foam (SPF) is usually a two-part

foam whose components travel through separate,

could offgas for a time. Hard data are hard to come

heated hoses to mix at the spray gun nozzle. Getting

by when pursuing airborne pollutants, smells, and

the correct mix takes skill and training, otherwise the

foam may not be durable and leaks can occur.

side effects.

COMBUSTION GASES

SPRAY FOAM INSULATION

Combustion produces water vapor and toxic gases

NOTE : Polyurethane is the dominant spray foam

(see, for example “Carbon Monoxide Detectors” on

today, but the comments in this section hold true for

p. 187). Heating system components such as heat most types of spray foam insulation.

exchangers or flue pipes that corrode or crack are

Spray polyurethane foam (SPF) is usually a two-

the principal sources of combustion air escaping

part foam whose components travel through sepa-

into living spaces; though negative pressurization

rate, heated hoses to mix at the spray gun nozzle.

(see p. 215) can also cause flue gases to spill back Sprayed wet onto a surface, the chemicals undergo

into living spaces rather than exiting up a chimney

an exothermic reaction (give off heat), foam, and

or flue.

expand dramatically, then gradually harden as they

cure. Correctly mixed, applied, and cured, SPF is inert, non-offgassing, and odorless and thus safe in both

interior and exterior applications.

A SKILLED INSTALLER IS ESSENTIAL.

Sprayed polyurethane foam is a remarkable performer

if applied precisely. But if its chemical components

are not heated to the correct temperature, mixed in

the right ratio, and applied in the prescribed thick-

ness, the foam may not cure correctly and could emit

noxious fumes for months. If the substrate being

sprayed is too moist or too cold, the installation can

fail. A seasoned installer also understands the impor-

tance of adequate ventilation during and after the

installation.

The faulty cap of this floor furnace is leaking combus-

tion air and friable asbestos fibers into living spaces.

In response to consumer concerns about lingering

The floor furnace is outdated and should be removed;

smells and potential health problems, information

it is also a burn hazard.

E N V I RO N M E N T A L C O N C E R N S 307

Rodents frequently nest in fiberglass insulation.

Vents of this type usually indicate the presence of

Damaged insulation should be removed and a rodent-

a buried fuel oil tank. The tank should be tested for

abatement (or vector control) specialist hired to pre-

leaks, and the ground around it for contamination.

vent a reinfestation.

Of course, finding and repairing combustion-air

Licensed pest-control firms know the safest means

leaks is preferable to after-the-fact alerts from an

of trapping such pests, preventing their reentry, and

alarm. As described in Chapter 8, inspecting older

removing contaminants. Often, they first moisten

heating systems is primarily a search for corrosion.

the affected areas with a 1:10 bleach solution (also a

Corrosion may be caused by restricted vent air flow, a

viricide) to minimize dust, while wearing N100 respi-

flue that is too long, inadequately sloped piping, flue

rators and disposable Tyvek hazmat suits.

pipes with an improper vertical-to-horizontal ratio,

or flue gases that cool too rapidly and so condense in

Fuel Leaks

the flue piping and cause corrosion. This condensa-

When inspecting homes with oil-fired heating sys-

tion can also enter heat exchangers, causing them to

tems, an inspector should note active leaks around

fail prematurely.

the furnace (or boiler) and the oil tank, or stains on

Flue-gas spillage can be caused by inadequate vent-

the basement floor that indicate past leaks. Often,

ing, improper configuration, or damaged vent piping,

oil tanks are buried so their condition is difficult to

such as a rain cap that has been mashed down at the

assess. Frequently, when homeowners replace an

top of a vent pipe. See “Flue-Gas Spillage” on p. 196

old oil-fired system with a cleaner, more efficient

for how to test for this problem.

natural gas–fired system, they just shut off the supply

lines from the oil tank and abandon the tank to rust

RODENT INFESTATIONS

away in the ground. Out of sight, out of mind. The

If rodents have nested in a crawl space, basement, or

only indication that there was or is an oil tank on the

attic, disturbing their nests or breathing contaminated

property may be small-diameter supply lines that

particles may expose one to a number of serious

weren’t removed or larger tank vent pipes such as

diseases and microorganisms, including hantavirus,

those shown in the right photo above.

which causes hantavirus pulmonary syndrome, for

BURIED TANKS are typically steel and, depend-

which there is no known vaccine or antivirus. The

ing on the presence of ground water and the compo-

likelihood of contracting the disease varies according

sition of the soil, tanks may rust and start leaking

to the extent of the contamination, the lack of venti-

after 20 years. Many homeowners (and would-be

lation, and other factors, but the danger is real.

house buyers) are not aware that the owner is respon-

308 ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS

sible for leaking oil tanks and the considerable cost

crawl spaces or through cracks in concrete basement

of cleaning up contaminated soil around them. So an

floors and seeps out of ground-level openings such

inspector should tell them of that obligation and urge

as floor drains, sump pits, and cracked mortar joints

them to read up on the local environmental rules

in concrete-block foundations. The rate of radon gas

concerning oil tanks, abandoned or not.

intrusion depends on a number of factors, includ-

WHAT TO DO ABOUT UNUSED TANKS is a

ing the concentration of uranium in the soil, the

complicated and potentially expensive decision. A

construction and condition of the foundation, and

house seller must, of course, disclose the presence of

variables such as negative pressurization (see

a tank to prospective buyers. Because a buyer would

p. 215) in the house, barometric pressure, and pre-assume the responsibility for the oil tank once owner-

cipitation. Radon gas can also enter a house via water

ship was transferred, the buyer could ask the seller to

from a private well, which is released when someone

vouchsafe that the tank is not leaking. One party or

does the dishes or takes a shower.

the other could pay to have the tank tested for leaks.

RADON ZONE MAPS. Homeowners concerned

Or the contents of the tank could be pumped out by a

about radon and its risks should first consult maps of

qualified service company, contaminated soil could

radon zones to learn of potential radon levels in their

be safely removed, and the tank could be removed or

area. One can find such maps by accessing EPA or

filled. Local codes will specify what must be done.

county environmental authority websites. An Internet

AUTO OIL LEAKS AND STAINS on a garage

search of “radon gas” + “[your county]” will also

floor are unlikely to contaminate surrounding areas,

produce relevant resources.

so they are typically not affected by local environmen-

RADON TESTING. If radon maps or local sites

tal rules. Nonetheless, because rules change all the

indicate moderate to high potential of radon gas in

time, an inspector should note oil leaks and stains on

the area, testing is a logical next step. Home centers

the inspection report and homeowners who intend to

sell DIY radon-detection canisters that are placed in

sell should be proactive about cleaning them up.

specified locations for a short time period, typically a

week. Following installation instructions is the best

Other Environmental Hazards

way to get accurate results. Alternatively, homeowners

In this section, we’ll briefly consider a few environ-

can have a radon-testing service perform long-term

mental hazards that tend to be site or region specific

(90-day) tests that get more accurate readings. Based

or whose causal links to illnesses are disputed.

on test results, the service will also present a range of remediation options.

RADON GAS

PROFESSIONAL REMEDIATION. Reducing

Radon is an odorless, colorless gas produced by the

radon concentrations needn’t break the bank, but

naturally occurring decay of radioactive elements

remediation is not a DIY task. Typically, an area under

(principally uranium) in the soil. That high con-

a ground-level slab is accessed, a perforated plastic

centrations of radon gas can cause cancer is well

collection pipe is inserted in a trench or pit, and that

established. Less clear are the effects of radon

pipe is connected to a solid plastic vent pipe (com-

concentrations less than the EPA’s action level of

monly 4 in. in diameter) that terminates above the

4 picocuries per liter of air (4 pC/L). Building scien-

roof. Because an open pipe offers less resistance than

tists have varying opinions of why adjacent houses can

a concrete slab, the gas drifts up the pipe and dissi-

have dramatically different concentrations of radon

pates harmlessly in the air. Homeowners should hire

gas and what the best ways to reduce radon gas are.

a mitigation contractor who has completed the EPA’s

RADON GAS INTRUSION. It’s generally accepted

Radon Contractor Proficiency Program.

that radon gas migrates up from the soil through dirt

E N V I RO N M E N T A L C O N C E R N S 309

WATER QUALITY

ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS (EMF)

If a house has municipal water, it is almost certainly

Virtually any electrical transmission line, utility

safe to drink because its quality is regularly tested

pole transformer, house wiring, and appliance

and must meet EPA standards. Any house whose

(including computers) generates electrical and

water comes from a private well should be tested at

magnetic fields. The greater the voltage, the greater

least annually, when a new resident moves in, and

the EMF emissions.

whenever a property is sold. A water-quality analysis

Limited epidemiological studies have established

should precede a sale.

statistical correlations between exposure to low-

LEAD CONTAMINATION of water was addressed

frequency EMFs around power lines and some types

earlier; the EPA estimates that 35 million to 40 mil-

of cancer, including leukemia. The potential effects

lion people in the United States drink water with a

of EMFs vary according to the proximity, intensity,

measurable amount of lead in it.

frequency, and period of exposure; NIOSH has

EXCESS SODIUM. If a water supply is hard (has

cautioned the public of potential health risks while

high mineral content) and requires water softening,

noting the inconclusiveness of the evidence thus far.

treated water may then have excessive sodium, which

Homeowners and prospective buyers concerned

occurs when the softening agent replaces excess

about a property’s potential exposure can have EMF

calcium in the water. Excessive sodium can be a prob-

intensity tested but, again, there are few guidelines

lem to people with high-blood pressure or who are

on what degree of exposure is normal or excessive,

otherwise on a low-salt diet. In that case, a separate

and few authoritative recommendations on what

cold-water branch line should bypass the water soft-

action to take.

ener and run directly to a kitchen tap.

FRACKING has been much in the news lately. It

Fire and Carbon Monoxide Safety

involves pumping pressurized, chemical-laden water

Although we discussed both smoke and CO alarms

underground to fracture rock and extract natural gas.

earlier, their use is vital enough to warrant a sum-

Critics contend that the process has fouled aquifers

mary of their regulations here.

from which communities get their drinking water,

We strongly urge residents to test smoke alarms by

and is responsible for a wide range of health prob-

pressing the test button as soon as they move into a

lems. Opinions are heated on both sides of the con-

new property and again each month. Most standard

troversy, so we urge readers to research the topic and

batteries should be changed sometime between every

form their own opinions. Fracking is widespread, so

6 months and 12 months; batteries with a 10-year life

house buyers should consult local water-quality agen-

span are now available.

cies to see if the procedure is allowed and presently

Smoke alarms should be installed in all living

impacting local wells.

areas, including basements and garages. They should

OTHER CONTAMINATION. Potable water from

be kept at least 20 ft. from appliances such as furnaces

private wells should be regularly tested for bacterial

and ovens, which produce combustion particles; at

pathogens such as coliform, which could result from

least 10 ft. from high humidity areas such as showers

faulty septic systems on the property or neighboring

and laundry rooms; and at least 3 ft. from heat/

properties. Shallow wells are particularly susceptible

cooling registers to reduce nuisance alarms.

to such pollution. Water tests will also show the

As we mentioned, most batteries should be

presence of pesticides, chemical spills, and leaking

changed once or twice a year. This is easy to remem-

oil tanks. County water-quality agencies should also

ber if you change batteries at the same time as you

have records of recent spills that might have affected

adjust your clocks for daylight savings time semi-

the property’s water.

annually. Smoke detectors should be installed on

310 ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS

every floor, including basements, and in hallways

near sleeping areas. Most jurisdictions now require

that smoke detectors be installed in each bedroom

in new construction, at changes in ceiling height

of 24 in. or more, or when modifications exceeding

$1,000 in value are made. Direct-wired smoke detec-

tors should also have backup batteries so they will

function in a power outage.

Fire extinguishers should be provided in kitchens

and garages for emergency use. We also suggest

carbon monoxide detectors be installed in buildings

with gas-fired heating systems.

Smoke and CO alarms are typically required in

The media (see www.theworldfiresafetyfoundation

hallways outside bedrooms and on each floor of a

.org/sfc) report that qualified fire protection experts

residence.

now believe that ionization-type smoke alarms are

not reliable and that their failures have resulted in many home-fire-related deaths. We understand that

over 90% of all home-installed smoke alarms are the

potentially hazardous type. Photoelectric-type smoke

alarms are considered much safer and we strongly

recommend each alarm device be checked and re-

placed as needed.

Ionization-type smoke alarms often have a label

showing the letter I or the radiation symbol. Photo-

electric alarms are typically labeled with the letter

P. It may be necessary to dismantle alarms to identify

which type each is. Home inspectors typically do not

test or dismantle smoke alarms during an inspection.

We do not believe that combination alarms with both

Many areas now require residential fire sprinkler

detection systems are safer because the ionization

systems be installed in new construction, especially

feature tends to be activated by cooking activities and

in high fire risk locations. Such systems should be

checked by a qualified professional once a year.

many have been disconnected as nuisances.

CARBON MONOXIDE ALARMS are now

required in dwelling units with fossil-fuel or gas-

burning heaters or appliances, fireplaces, and in

attached garages. A CO alarm should be centrally

located outside of each separate sleeping area in the

immediate vicinity of the bedrooms and at least

6 in. from exterior walls and at least 3 ft. from

furnace supply or return vents. CO alarms should be

replaced every 4 years or at intervals established by the manufacturer. Battery-powered combination carbon

monoxide and smoke alarms are now available.

E N V I RO N M E N T A L C O N C E R N S 311

PHOTO CREDITS

Introduction

All photos are by Michael Litchfield except for the bottom photo p. 15 by Brian Cogley.

Chapter 2

p. 32 (bottom): Photo by Rob Wotzak, courtesy of Fine Homebuilding © The Taunton Press, Inc.

p. 40 (top): Photo by Michael Litchfield

p. 43 (right): Photo by Roe A. Osborn, courtesy of Fine Homebuilding © The Taunton Press, Inc.

Chapter 3

p. 54: Photo by Michael Litchfield

p. 67: Photo by Paul Fisette, courtesy of Fine Homebuilding © The Taunton Press, Inc.

Chapter 4

p. 77: Photo by Michael Litchfield

Chapter 6

p. 117: Photo by Michael Litchfield

p. 118: Photo by Michael Litchfield

p. 119: Photo by Michael Litchfield

p. 120 (top): Photos by Michael Litchfield

p. 123: Photo by Michael Litchfield

p. 126 (right): Photo by Michael Litchfield

p. 128: Photo by Brian Pontolilo, courtesy of Fine Homebuilding © The Taunton Press, Inc.

p. 130: Photo by Michael Litchfield

p. 138: Photos by Michael Litchfield

p. 146 (top right): Photo by Michael Litchfield

p. 148 (top left): Photo by Michael Litchfield

Chapter 7

p. 161 (left): Photo by Michael Litchfield

p. 167: Photo by Michael Litchfield

Chapter 8

p. 178 (right): Photo by Michael Litchfield

p. 186: Photo by Michael Litchfield

Chapter 12

p. 272 (bottom): Photo by Michael Litchfield

Chapter 14

p. 297: Photo by Michael Litchfield

p. 301 (bottom): Photo by Rob Wotzak, courtesy of Fine Homebuilding © The Taunton Press, Inc.

p. 307 (top): Photo by Michael Litchfield

312 PHOTO CREDITS

INDEX

Note: Page numbers in bold indicate

Beetles, powder-post, 113

weatherproofing, 51, 244–46

references to captions, charts, or

Bidets and toilets, 268–70

what to look for, 51, 242, 246–47

illustrations.

Bracing (shear) panels, 111–12

Downspouts, 74–75

Brick walls (including veneers), 40–42

Drainage, roof, 53, 73–75

A

Drainage and grading, 18–21, 25, 290–91

Air conditioning, 203–06

C

Driveways, 24–25

Aluminum siding, 42–43

Cabinets, kitchen and bath, 9, 229, 255,

Dryer and washer setup, 272–75

Ants, carpenter, 113

258, 270–71, 306

Drywall, 221–23

Appliances, in garage, 287–88

Carbon monoxide, 163, 187, 217, 307,

DWV (drain, waste, vent) system, 167–73.

Appliances, kitchen, 255–57

310–11

See also Plumbing; Vents and

Arbors (trellises), 25–26

Carpets, 115, 231, 232, 233, 265

ventilation

Asbestos, 297–300

Ceilings. See Interiors

ceilings/floors with, 225, 232–33,

Chimneys and fireplaces, 207–19

E

299–300

chimney flashing, 68–70

Eaves, 47, 48, 81

electrical panels with, 136, 299

chimneys, 58, 87, 163, 208–13

Electrical service panels/subpanels, 127–37

flue pipes with, 298–99

fire hazards, 86–87

breakers (circuit and main), 127–29

hazards/guidelines, 10–11, 297

fireplaces, 213–18

components, illustrated, 128

heating system parts with, 183, 186, 193,

inspection example, 8

fuse boxes, 129–30

194, 195, 297–98

what to look for, 210, 212, 213, 217–18,

inspecting, 130–37

other uses/locations, 300

219

meter/mains, 129

professional abatement, 300

wood stoves, 218–19

safety guidelines, 120–22

shingles, 44, 71

Clients, taking care of, 15–16

what to look for, 131, 133, 136–37

Attics, 76–88

Clothing, for inspections, 11, 12–13

Electrical systems, 116–48

accessing, 12

Concrete. See also Foundations, basements,

aluminum wiring, 135, 142, 144

air (heat) leaks, 84–85

substructures

attic and, 5

critter control, 82, 83, 86, 88

floors, 103–05, 114–15, 290–91

bathroom requirements, 259–60

framing and sheathing, 77–80

issues, 98–103

circuit wiring, 141–43, 256, 292–93

furnace requirements, 179–80

pads, 103–04, 110

garage, 292–93

health and safety concerns, 85–88

substructure framing and, 109–11

general-use circuits, 143–44

inspection example/guidelines, 5

Countertops, 270

GFCIs, 144, 145, 146, 147, 255, 259–60,

insulation, 83–85

292

safety guidelines, 77

D

grounding basics, 137–41, 256

vapor retarders, 84

Decks. See Porches and decks

hazards, 87–88

ventilation, 80–83, 86

Dehumidifiers, 95, 98, 106. See also Air

heater safety, 147

what to look for, 80, 83, 85, 88

conditioning

inspection example/guidelines, 6

Dishwashers, 257

inspection tools/equipment, 118, 123

B

Disposers, 257

kitchen requirements, 255, 256

Basements. See Foundations, basements,

Doors, 237–47

knob-and-tube (KT) wiring, 88, 142–43

substructures

elements, 238–39

laundry setups, 272–73

Bath fans, 85

exterior, 50–51, 239–40, 243–47

meters, 126–27

Bathrooms, 254, 259–71

flashing, 31, 244

miswiring issues, 145–47, 256

cabinets and countertops, 9, 270–71

hardware (locks and hinges), 240, 246

neutral/ground bus, 138–41

electrical and lighting, 259–60

hinged, 240

new construction requirements, 144–45

fixture layout/clearances, 261

materials, 50–51, 243–44

outlets (indoor), 143–47, 255, 259–60

inspection example, 9

rough openings and frames, 238, 239

outlets (outdoor and garage), 147–48,

lavatories, 265–68

safe landings, 240

292

toilets and bidets, 268–70

specs, 239–40

room-by-room requirements, 144–45

tubs and showers, 262–65

thresholds, 51, 244–46

safety guidelines, 12, 117–22, 123, 137,

ventilation, 85, 260–61

troubleshooting, 241–42

147

what to look for, 261, 265, 269–70, 271

types of, 50, 240–41

service and service entrances, 122–25

I N D E X 313

service drops, 48, 122–25, 126, 127

G

safety guidelines, 11–13

testing voltage, 119

Garages, 287–95

step by step example, 3–11

what to look for, 122, 127, 129, 131, 133,

doors and openers, 293–95

taking notes, 14–15

136–37, 141, 143, 147, 148

electrical, 292–93

tools, 13–14

Electromagnetic fields (EMF), 310

firewalls and fire doors, 288–89

Humidifiers, 193

Environmental concerns, 296–311. See also

floors, driveways, drainage, 290–91

Asbestos; Lead; Mold

I

foundation and framing, 291–92

electromagnetic fields (EMF), 310

Insect infestation, 112–14

furnace requirements, 179

fuel leaks, 308–09

Insulation, 71, 83–85, 86, 87, 88, 192, 306, granny flat over, 295

hazardous materials inspections, 10–11

307, 308

inspection example, 9–10

interior air quality, 305–08 ( see also

Interiors, 220–36

safety concerns, 287–88

Carbon monoxide; Smoke

ceiling height, 14, 224

what to look for, 289, 291, 292, 293, 295

detectors)

ceiling tile precautions, 225, 232–33,

Gases, 163, 307–08, 309. See also Carbon

mold, 42, 85, 95, 114, 222–23, 224–25,

299

monoxide

260, 303–05

drywall, 221–23

Gates, fences, trellises, 25–26

radon gas, 309

finish surfaces, 221–26

GFCIs, 144, 145, 146–47, 255, 259–60, 292

water quality, 310

inspection guidelines, 8

Grading and drainage, 18–21, 25

Exteriors, 29–51. See also Doors; Roofs; Sid-

paint and clear finishes, 226–27

Grounding basics, 137–41

ing; Windows

plaster, 223–25

Gutters and downspouts, 73–75

trim, 45–48

staircases, 233–36

walls shedding water, 30–31

H

wallpaper and paneling, 225–26, 305

what to look for, 33, 46–47, 48

Hazardous materials. See Environmental

what to look for, 223, 225, 226, 227,

concerns; specific materials

230, 233, 236

F

Heat pumps, 206

Fences, gates, trellises, 25–26

K

Heating and cooling systems, 177–206. See

Fiber-cement siding, 44–45

Kitchens, 9, 254–59

also Heating systems, forced-air

Fire hazards, 86–87. See also Smoke detec-

asbestos and, 183, 186, 193, 194, 195,

L

tors

297–98

Ladder safety, 12, 54

Fireplaces. See Chimneys and fireplaces

attic/garage furnaces, 179–80

Landscaping, 26–27. See also Fences, gates,

Firewood, 46

balancing, 181

trellises; Sidewalks

Flashing. See also Roof flashing

central air-conditioning, 203–06

Laundry setups, 272–75

chimney, 213

central heating system overview, 178–81

Lead

deck and add-on, 285

common components, 178–79

abatement specialists, 303

drip edge, 47–48, 51, 65, 67, 74, 285

electric room heaters, 201

paint, 10–11, 32, 226, 227, 300–302

window/door, 30, 31, 32, 39, 49–50, 244

floor furnaces, 201–02

pipes/water contamination, 152, 303,

Floors, 230–33

garage, 287–88

310

basement, 103–05, 114–15

gravity-fed systems, 183

risks, 300

common concerns, 231–33

heat pumps, 206

Light cans, 88

garage, 290–91

hot water and steam systems, 196–201

Lighting, kitchen and bath, 145, 260. See also

materials choices, 230

inspection example, 7–8

Electrical systems

sheathing and subflooring, 111

natural gas safety, 182

Lighting, outdoor, 148

types and thicknesses, 230–31

outlet types, 180

Lights, for inspections, 12

what to look for, 233

room heaters, 201–03

Locks, door, 240, 246

Foundations, basements, substructures,

thermostats, master shutoffs, 180

89–115

wall furnaces, 202–03

M

access and safety, 90–91

warm air systems, 181–84

Masonry walls, 40–42

carpet in basements, 233

what to look for, 181, 182, 196, 198,

Measuring things, 14

clients accompanying inspection, 15–16

200–201, 203, 205–06

Meters, electrical, 126–27

concrete issues, 98–105

when to call specialist, 178

Meters, water, 151

crawl spaces, 6, 11, 12, 90–91, 105–07

Heating systems, forced-air, 183–94

Mold, 42, 85, 95, 114, 222–23, 224–25, 260,

fasteners and steel reinforcement, 99

advantages of, 183–84

303–05

finished basements, 114–15

air filters, 191

floors, 103–05, 114–15

blower fans, 189–91

N

foundation basics/types, 91–93

burners and heat exchangers, 184–86

Notes, taking, 14–15

inspection example/guidelines, 5–6, 11

central air-conditioning with, 203–06

moisture issues, 94–98, 103–06, 114–15

combustion air, 188–89

O

porch foundations, 277–78

condensing furnaces, 188

Outbuildings, 295

structural settling, 93–94, 97, 98–99,

controls (thermostats, switches, etc.),

208

186–88

P

substructure framing, 107–12

humidifiers and, 193

Paint

what to look for, 94, 98, 101, 103, 105,

registers and return-air grilles, 193–94

on brick, 41

106–07, 112, 113–14, 115

supply and return-air ducting, 180, 190,

exterior, 31–33

Framing, substructure, 107–12

191, 192, 205

interior, 226, 227

Fuel leaks, 308–09

venting, 194–96

lead, 10–11, 32, 226, 227, 300–302

Fungi, 34, 114, 280, 291. See also Mold

what to look for, 186, 188, 191, 194

Paneling, 225–26

Furnace. See Heating and cooling systems

Hinges, 240, 246

Pests. See Insect infestation; Rodents;

Fuse boxes. See Electrical service panels/

Home inspection

Termites

subpanels

buying house and, 2–3

Plaster, 223–25

client care, 15–16

314 INDEX

Plumbing, 149–76. See also Attics; Bath-

water shedding, 53

range hoods, 85

rooms; Vents and ventilation;

what to look for, 57, 59, 61, 62, 64–65,

stack flashing, 56, 67–68

Water supply

67, 68, 70, 71–72, 73, 75

stacks terminating under roof, 68

DWV (drain, waste, vent) system,

wood shingles and shakes, 57–59

supporting stacks and vents, 69

167–73

water heater, 163–64

inspection example/guidelines, 7

S

what to look for, 83, 85, 106, 165, 196

laundry setups, 273–75

Safety. See also Carbon monoxide; Environ-

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs), 296,

lead pipes, 152, 303, 310

mental concerns

305–06

pipe types, 151, 152, 155–56, 168–69

carbon monoxide, 163, 185, 187, 217,

private wells and pumps, 174–75

307, 310–11

W

septic systems, 175–76

door landing, 240

Walk-around, 17–28

shutoff valves, 150, 151–52, 156, 159

electrical, 90, 117–22, 123, 137, 147

about: overview of, 3–4, 17–18

what to look for, 160–61, 162–63, 164–

garage, 287–88

drainage and grading, 18–21

65, 166, 167, 173, 176

general guidelines, 11–13

driveways, 24–25

Pools and safety, 28

ladder, 12, 54

fences, gates, trellises, 25–26

Porches and decks, 10, 276–86

natural gas, 182

general guidelines, 3–4

decking, 280, 283

roof inspection, 12, 54, 61

landscaping, 26–27

decks, 281–86

smoke detectors, 223, 259, 310–11

retaining walls, 21–22

foundations, 277–78, 282–83

staircase, 235

sidewalks, 23–24

porches, 277–81

swimming pool, 28

what to look for, 20, 21, 22, 24, 25,

rubberized deck coatings, 284

Septic systems, 175–76

26, 27

second-story decks/balconies, 284–86

Settlement, structural, 93–94, 98–99, 208

Wallpaper, 225, 305

stairs and railings, 278–80, 284

Settling, structural, 97

Washer and dryer setup, 272–75

superstructure of porch, 280–81

Sheds and outbuildings, 295

Water and moisture. See also Plumbing

what to look for, 280, 281, 286

Showers and tubs, 262–65

basement/crawl space issues, 94–98,

Pumps, heating system, 200

Sidewalks, 23–24

103–06, 114–15

Pumps, waste system, 171, 174–75

Siding

condensation, excess moisture, 95 ( see

above grade, 31

also Mold)

R

aluminum, 42–43

drainage and grading, 18–21

Radon gas, 309

cement-based, 44–45

Water heaters, 7, 139, 150, 153, 158, 159–67,

Range hoods, 85, 258

clapboard details, 35

190, 272, 287–88, 298

Ranges, ovens, cooktops, 255–56

masonry and veneers, 40–42

Water quality, 310

Refrigerators and freezers, 255–56

painted and stained, 31–33

Water supply, 150–59

Retaining walls, 21–22

shedding water, 30–31

at fixtures (common problems), 157–59

Rodents, 82, 83, 86, 88, 132, 141, 271, 308

stucco, 38–40

inspection points, 151–52

Roof flashing, 53, 65–73

trim and, 45–48

mains and meters, 150, 151–52

adjoining structures, 72–73

vinyl, 44

outdoor faucets, piping, sprinklers, 157

chimney flashing, 68–70

what to look for, 33, 35, 36, 37–38, 40,

pipe overview, 150–51

drip edge, 51, 65, 67, 74

42, 43, 44

pipe types, 151, 152, 155–56

eaves flashing, 66, 67

wood, 33–38

pressure and flow, 153–54, 158

porch, 281

Sinks, bath (lavatories), 265–68

surveying pipe, 154–56

rake edge, 65, 67

Sinks, kitchen, 258–59

system, illustrated, 150

ridge flashing, 71

Skylights, 64, 65, 70–72, 79–80, 84, 85

water heater, 165–66 ( see also Water

skylight flashing, 70–72

Smoke detectors, 223, 259, 310–11

heaters)

valley flashing, 66, 67

Stairs and railings, 233–36, 278–80, 284

what to look for, 152, 154, 156, 157, 159

vent stack flashing, 56, 67–68

Sump pumps, 104

Waterproofing membranes, 98

Roofs, 52–75

Swimming pools, 28

Water/steam heating systems, 196–201

basics, 53

Wells, private, 174–75

built-up (BURs), 62, 63

T

Windows, 237, 247–53

common issues, 53–55, 56–57, 58–59,

Termites, 31, 39, 108, 112–13, 278

awning, 49, 253

63

Toilets and bidets, 268–70

basement egress, 115

composition/asphalt shingles, 55–57

Tools, 13–14, 118

casement, 49, 248–49, 253

drainage, 53, 73–75

Trellises, 25–26

double-hung, 49, 247–48, 252–53

flat, 62–65

Trim, exterior, 45–48

egress, 252

framing and support, 77–79

Trim, interior, 228–30

fixed, 249

gutters and downspouts, 73–75

Tubs and showers, 262–65

flashing, 30, 31, 32, 39, 49–50, 244

inspection example/guidelines, 4–5

frame and sash materials, 49–50,

V

metal, 61–62

249–50

Vapor retarders, 84

roll roofing, 63, 64

glazing issues and types, 250–51

Vents and ventilation

safety guidelines, 12, 54, 61

hinged, 253

attic, 80–83, 86

sheathing, 79–80

hopper, 49, 253

balconies, 286

shingle terminology, 56

horizontal slider, 49, 249

bathroom, 85, 260–61

single-ply coverings, 62, 64

inspection example, 8–9

common failure points, 194–95

slate, synthetic slate, clay tile, 59–61

single-hung, 49

crawl space, 106

slopes, 53

storm, 253

drain vent pipes, 167–68

spray-polyurethane foam (SPF), 62, 64

tilt-and-turn, 49, 249, 253

dryer, 274

steep-slope, 53–62

types of, 48–49, 247–49

fireplace, 210

sun damage, 55, 63

what to look for, 50, 251–52, 253

heating system, 194–96

trusses, 79

Wood stoves, 218–19

passive and mechanical, 81–83

I N D E X 315

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© 2014 The Taunton Press

HOUSE & HOME

FROM THE PUBLISHERS OF FINE HOMEBUILDING

The COMPLETE GUIDE to

HOME INSPECTION

A manual for buyers, sellers, and home inspectors

BUYING, SELLING, AND EVEN OWNING A HOME can be

ROGER C. ROBINSON has inspected

overwhelming if you don’t understand how that home works.

thousands of residential and commercial

properties since 1979. He has won state

The Complete Guide to Home Inspection will take you step by step and national industry awards and is the

through each house system, pointing out things to watch out former president of CREIA (California

for and helping you to identify what might call for a cosmetic Real Estate Inspection Association). In

addition to founding several CREIA and

upgrade and what might require a more costly repair. Armed ASHI (American Society of Home Inspectors) chapters,

with this information, you’ll be ready to buy a new home, Robinson co-authored House Check: Finding and Fixing

Common House Problems. He has written numerous train-upgrade the home you want to sell, complete a professional ing manuals and articles, and he travels nationwide and inspection for your clients, or even upgrade the home you in Canada leading training seminars for scores of home already live in.

inspectors.

MICHAEL LITCHFIELD, a founding

editor of Fine Homebuilding magazine

and a certified green building profes-

WHAT TO LOOK FOR

sional, has been renovating homes

and writing about the projects for

■

■

Complete a whole house inspection in a

more than 40 years. He has written

logical sequence

12 acclaimed books on home renovation

and design and was an editor of a CNET/Yahoo! Gold Star

■

■

Evaluate heating, plumbing, and electrical

home improvement site.

systems safely

■

■

Determine if cracks are structural problems

Look for other Taunton Press books wherever books are

or merely cosmetic

sold or visit our website at www.tauntonstore.com.

■

■

Identify environmental hazards such as lead,

Visit www.finehomebuilding.com for the most trusted asbestos, and mold

building information online and to learn about Fine

Homebuilding magazine and other homebuilding

■

■

Inspect roofs, gutters, trim, flashing, siding,

products from The Taunton Press.

and more

The Taunton Press

Pp 63 South Main Street, P.O. Box 5506

Newtown, CT 06470-5506

www.taunton.com

Taunton Product #077548

Document Outline

Front Cover

Title Page

Copyright

Acknowledgements

Contents

Introduction

Chapter 1 The Walk-Around

Chapter 2 Exteriors

Chapter 3 Roofs

Chapter 4 Attics

Chapter 5 Foundations, Basements, and Crawl Spaces

Chapter 6 Electrical Systems

Chapter 7 Plumbing

Chapter 8 Heating and Cooling Systems

Chapter 9 Chimneys and Fireplaces

Chapter 10 Interiors

Chapter 11 Doors and Windows

Chapter 12 Kitchens, Bathrooms, and Laundry

Chapter 13 Attched Structures

Chapter 14 Environmental Concerns

Photo Credits

Index

Back Cover